Despite recent studies implicating liquid-like biomolecular condensates in diverse cellular processes, many biomolecular condensates exist in a solid-like state, and their function and regulation are less understood. We show that the tumor suppressor Merlin, an upstream regulator of the Hippo pathway, localizes to both cell junctions and medial apical cortex in Drosophila epithelia, with the latter forming solid-like condensates that activate Hippo signaling. Merlin condensation required phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI4P)-mediated plasma membrane targeting and was antagonistically controlled by Pez and cytoskeletal tension through plasma membrane PI4P regulation. The solid-like material properties of Merlin condensates are essential for physiological function and protect the condensates against external perturbations. Collectively, these findings uncover an essential role for solid-like condensates in normal physiology and reveal regulatory mechanisms for their formation and disassembly.

The function of biomolecular condensates is often restricted by condensate dissolution. Whether condensates can be suppressed without condensate dissolution is unclear. Here, we show that upstream regulators of the Hippo signaling pathway form functionally antagonizing condensates, and their coalescence into a common phase provides a mode of counteracting the function of biomolecular condensates without condensate dissolution. Specifically, the negative regulator SLMAP forms Hippo-inactivating condensates to facilitate pathway inhibition by the STRIPAK complex. In response to cell-cell contact or osmotic stress, the positive regulators AMOT and KIBRA form Hippo-activating condensates to facilitate pathway activation. The functionally antagonizing SLMAP and AMOT/KIBRA condensates further coalesce into a common phase to inhibit STRIPAK function. These findings provide a paradigm for restricting the activity of biomolecular condensates without condensate dissolution, shed light on the molecular principles of multiphase organization, and offer a conceptual framework for understanding upstream regulation of the Hippo signaling pathway.

The Hippo (Hpo) pathway regulates tissue growth in many animals. Multiple upstream components promote Hpo pathway activity, but the organization of these different inputs, the degree of crosstalk between them, and whether they are regulated in a distinct manner is not well understood. Kibra (Kib) activates the Hpo pathway by recruiting the core Hpo kinase cassette to the apical cortex. Here, we show that the Hpo pathway downregulates Drosophila Kib levels independently of Yorkie-mediated transcription. We find that Hpo signaling complex formation promotes Kib degradation via SCF Slimb -mediated ubiquitination, that this effect requires Merlin, Salvador, Hpo, and Warts, and that this mechanism functions independently of other upstream Hpo pathway activators. Moreover, Kib degradation appears patterned by differences in mechanical tension across the wing. We propose that Kib degradation mediated by Hpo pathway components and regulated by cytoskeletal tension serves to control Kib-driven Hpo pathway activation and ensure optimally scaled and patterned tissue growth.

Examining the subcellular localization of Hippo pathway components has helped elucidate the molecular mechanisms that regulate the pathway. Here we describe methods for performing live imaging of fluorescently tagged Hippo pathway components in Drosophila wing imaginal discs.

The Hippo signaling pathway is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that controls organ size in animals. Yorkie is well known as a transcriptional coactivator that functions downstream of the Hippo pathway to positively regulate transcription of genes that promote tissue growth. Recent studies have shown that increased myosin activity activates both Yorkie and its vertebrate orthologue YAP, resulting in increased nuclear localization and tissue growth. Here we show that Yorkie also can accumulate at the cell cortex in the apical junctional region. Moreover, Yorkie functions at the cortex to promote activation of myosin through a myosin regulatory light chain kinase, Stretchin-Mlck. This Yorkie function is not dependent on its transcriptional activity and is required for larval and adult tissues to achieve appropriate size. Based on these results, we suggest that Yorkie functions in a feedforward "amplifier" loop that promotes myosin activation, and thereby greater Yorkie activity, in response to tension.

The Hippo pathway is emerging as a key evolutionarily conserved signaling mechanism that controls organ size. Three membrane-associated proteins, Kibra, Merlin, and Expanded, regulate pathway activity, but the precise molecular mechanism by which they function is still poorly understood. Here we provide evidence that Merlin and Kibra activate Hippo signaling in parallel to Expanded at a spatially distinct cellular domain, the medial apical cortex. Merlin and Kibra together recruit the adapter protein Salvador, which in turn recruits the core kinase Hippo. In addition, we show that Crumbs has a dual effect on Hippo signaling. Crumbs promotes the ability of Expanded to activate the pathway but also sequesters Kibra to downregulate Hippo signaling. Together, our findings elucidate the mechanism of Hippo pathway activation by Merlin and Kibra, identify a subcellular domain for Hippo pathway regulation, and demonstrate differential activity of upstream regulators in different subcellular domains.

Fluorescent protein (FP)-based Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensors are powerful tools for dynamically measuring cellular molecular events because they offer high spatial and temporal resolution in living cells. Despite the broad use of FP-based FRET biosensors in cell biology, imaging of multiple molecular events (multi-parameter molecular imaging) in single cells using current FRET pairs remains difficult because it usually requires a control group for additional data calibration. Hence, spectrally compatible FRET pairs that do not require complex image calibration are the key to widespread applications of FP-based FRET biosensors in multi-parameter molecular imaging. Here, we report a new combination of spectrally distinguishable FRET pairs for dual-parameter molecular imaging: mTagBFP/sfGFP (blue and green FP, B/G) and mVenus/mKOκ (yellow and orange FP, Y/O). We demonstrate that additional image correction is not necessary for these dual FRET pairs. Using these dual FRET pairs, we achieve simultaneous imaging of Src and Ca2+ signaling in single living cells stimulated with epithelial growth factor (EGF). By converting traditional FRET biosensors into B/G and Y/O-based biosensors, additional applications are available to elucidate the dynamic relationships of multiple molecular events within a single living cell.

Reversible oxidation is emerging as an important regulatory mechanism in protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), upon growth factor stimulation, is hypothesized to inhibit activity of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). This ensures that protein tyrosine kinases can elevate the steady-state level of protein tyrosine phosphorylation, which then allows propagation of the tyrosine phosphorylation signal. However, the effects of H2O2 on the kinetics of tyrosine phosphorylation signaling remain poorly understood, especially in living cells. Therefore, we used a genetically encoded Src kinase-specific biosensor based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) to image the kinetics of the Src-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation signaling (Src signaling) induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF). We examined the kinetics under increased and decreased H2O2 levels. Through a straightforward, quantitative analysis method which characterized the signaling kinetics, we demonstrated that H2O2 modulated the amplitude and duration of the signal by inhibiting PTPs' activity. Our evidence also suggested the effect of H2O2 on Src activation is mediated by H2O2-dependent inhibition of PTPs. Furthermore, we provide evidence showing global elevation of intracellular H2O2 level attenuates EGF-induced Src signaling.

Water-solubility and biocompatibility are prerequisites for rare-earth up-converting nanophosphors applied to biological imaging. In this work, we have developed a facile and one-step synthesis technique, through which water-soluble NaYF(4): Yb(3+), Er(3+) nanoparticles (NPs) with functional groups including 3-mercaptopropionic acid, 6-aminocaproic acid and poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether on their surface can be directly prepared without any further surface treatment. Some inorganic salts will be selected as starting materials, water and some low toxic organic agents have been used as reaction media, which differs from earlier works. Structural and up-converting fluorescence are characterized by a variety of techniques. Cell uptake and in-vitro imaging of the as-synthesized NPs have been investigated using a multiphoton con-focal laser scanning microscope with a near-infrared excitation source. Internalization of the bare and functionalized NPs in human lung carcinoma A549 and human cervical carcinoma HeLa cells are studied at a nanoparticle loading of 10 µg mL(-1) over an exposure period from 30 min to 24 h. The cytotoxicity of modified NPs in HeLa cells is found to be low. In addition, the feasibility of the NPs in animal imaging has been demonstrated by subcutaneously injecting these NPs into nude mouse. The results indicated that our directly synthesized NPs coated with various functional groups are promising as bio-imaging agents due to their easy uptake, long lasting, low cytotoxicity, emissive in various human carcinoma cell lines and small animals through up-conversion with near-infrared excitation.

Genetically coded fluorescent protein (FP)-based biosensors are powerful tools for the non-invasive tracking of molecular events in living cells. Although a variety of FP biosensors are available, the simultaneous imaging of multiple biosensors (multi-parameter imaging) in single living cells remains a challenge and is far from routinely used to elucidate the intricate networks of molecular events. In this study, we established a novel combination of FP biosensors for dual-parameter ratiometric imaging, consisting of a new fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) pair mVenus (yellow FP)/mKOκ (orange FP)-based (abbreviated as YO) biosensor and a single FP-based biosensor Grx1-roGFP2. Under our imaging condition, 1.4±0.05% of Grx1-roGFP2 signal contributes to the mVenus channel and 5.2±0.12% of the mVenus signal contributes to the Grx1-roGFP2 channel. We demonstrate that such low degree of cross-talk causes negligible distortion of the ratiometric signal of the YO-based FRET biosensor and Grx1-roGFP2. By using this dual-parameter ratiometric imaging approach, we achieved simultaneous imaging of Src/Ca(2+) signaling and glutathione (GSH) redox potential in a single cell, which was previously unattainable. Furthermore, we provided direct evidence that epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced Src signaling was negatively regulated by H(2)O(2) via its effect on GSH-based redox system, demonstrating the power of this dual-parameter imaging approach for elucidating new connections between different molecular events that occur in a single cell. More importantly, the dual-parameter imaging approach described in this study is highly extendable.

Apoptosis plays an essential role in normal organism development which is one of the main types of programmed cell death to help tissues maintain homeostasis. Defective apoptosis can result in cell accumulation and therefore effects on tumor pathogenesis, progression and therapy resistance. A family of proteins, known as caspases, is typically activated in the early stages of apoptosis. Therefore, studying the kinetics of activation of caspases induced by antitumor drugs can contribute to antitumor drug discovery and explanation of the molecular mechanisms. This paper detected the Caspase-3 activity induced by cisplatin in human adenoid cystic carcinoma cell line (ACC-M), human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cell line (HepG2) and human epithelial carcinoma cell line (Hela) with stably expressing ECFP-DEVDDsRed (CD3) probe, a fluorescent probe consisting of Enhanced Cyan Fluorescent Protein (ECFP), red fluorescent protein (DsRed) and a linker with a recognition site of Caspase-3, by using the capillary electrophoresis (CE) and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging system. Under the same concentration of cisplatin, ACC-M cells responded the most rapidly, and then HepG2 cells and Hela cells, respectively, in the early 30 hours. Later, HepG2 cells represented acceleration in the Caspase-3 activation speed and reached full activation the earliest comparing to other two cell types. The results demonstrated that ACC-M cell is more sensitive than the other two cell types under the treatment of cisplatin.

Cataract is a common cause of childhood blindness worldwide. alpha-crystallin, which is comprised of two homologous subunits, alphaA- and alphaB-crystallin, plays a key role in the maintenance of lens transparency. Recently, we have identified a missense mutation in alphaB-crystallin that changes the proline residue at codon 20 to a serine residue (P20S) in a large Chinese family with autosomal dominant posterior polar congenital cataract. To explore the molecular mechanism by which the P20S mutation causes cataract, we examined the quaternary structure, subunit exchange and chaperone activity of the reconstituted heteroaggregates of alpha-crystallins containing wild type (WT) alphaA in combination with either WT-alphaB- or mutant alphaB-crystallin, respectively. Compared with heteroaggregates of WT-alphaA and WT-alphaB, heteroaggregates containing WT-alphaA and mutant alphaB showed nearly the same molecular mass, but the subunit-exchange rate and chaperone activity were decreased markedly. In human lens epithelial cells, unlike WT-alphaB-crystallin, the P20S mutant protein showed abnormal nuclear localization, and unusual ability to trigger apoptosis. These results suggest that the changes in the structure and function of the alpha-crystallin complex and cytotoxicity are vital factors in the pathogenesis of congenital cataract linked to the P20S mutation in the alphaB-crystallin.

Many cellular events involve the alteration in redox equilibrium, globally or locally. In many cases, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is the underlying cause. Several green fluoresecence protein based indicators are constructed to measure redox status in cells, e.g, rxYFP and roGFPs, which allow real time detection. reduction and oxidization-sensitive GFP (RoGFPs) are more useful due to ratiometric variation by excitation, making the measurement more accurate. Utilizing one of those roGFPs called roGFP1, we establish a mitochondrial redox state probing platform in HeLa cells with laser scan confocal microscopy (LSCM) as detection system. Control experiments confirmed that our platform could produce stable ratiometric values, which made the data more accurately reflect the real environmental changes of redox status that roGFP1 probed. Using exogenous H2O2 and DTT, we evaluated the reactivity and reversibility of roGFP1. The minimal hydrogen peroxide concentration that roGFP1 could show detectable ratiometric changes in our system was about 200&mgr;M. Preliminarily applying our platform to exploring the redox status during apoptosis, we observed an increase in ratiometric, suggesting an excessive ROS production.

Degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) enhances tumor invasion and metastasis. To monitor MMP activity, we constructed plasmid that encoded a fluorescent sensor DC, in which an MMP substrate site (MSS) is sandwiched between DsRed2 and ECFP. MMPs are secretory proteins, only acting on the outside of cells; hence, an expressing vector was used that displayed the fluorescent sensor on the cellular surface. The DC was expressed in cells with high secretory MMP, so MSS was cleaved by MMP. Also, GM6001, an MMP inhibitor, causes DsRed2 signals to increase in living cells and on the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). Thus, this fluorescent sensor was able to sensitively monitor MMP activation in vivo. Potential applications for this sensor include high-throughput screening for MMP inhibitors for anti-cancer research, and detailed analysis of the effects of MMP inhibitors.