Farm mechanization is expanding in Bangladesh, yet smallholders continue to face constraints such as fragmented landholdings, high machinery costs, limited access to custom hiring services, and insufficient training. This study examines these challenges using secondary data from 5053 households in the Eastern Gangetic Plains collected under the Sustainable and Resilient Farming Systems Intensification project. Although the dataset emphasizes conservation agriculture and contains few machine-specific variables, it remains appropriate for assessing technology adoption in smallholder systems. A subsample of 1761 farmers from Rajshahi and Rangpur districts of Bangladesh was analyzed to assess the joint adoption of four modern machines: the rotavator, laser land leveler, happy seeder, and combine harvester. Unlike studies that consider single technologies, this research investigates how farmers’ adoption decisions interact. The descriptive statistics reveal that 56.8 % of households adopted the rotavator, whereas adoption of the other machines remained below 2.5 %. Multivariate Probit model identified that household size, family labor, off-farm income, machinery ownership, and institutional support generally encouraged adoption, while age, education, and limited familiarity with machinery reduced uptake for some technologies. Correlation results reveal both complementarities and substitution among machines. The findings underscore the need for targeted financial support, training, custom hiring services, and awareness programs to promote inclusive, region-appropriate mechanization. The study adds new empirical evidence by jointly analyzing multiple mechanization choices and clarifying the behavioral and structural conditions needed for sustainable agricultural intensification in smallholder systems.

This study investigates the extent, drivers, and consequences of land fallowing in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) region spanning India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The region comprises a critical agricultural landscape facing rural poverty and food insecurity. Despite fertile conditions, widespread land fallowing during the kharif and rabi seasons reduces productivity and threatens household food security. Using survey data from 1440 farm households across 72 villages, probit regression models identify determinants of fallowing decisions. To estimate causal impacts on food insecurity, which is measured using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES), the study applies the Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) method, which accounts for selection bias in observational data. Results show that 31% of households fallow land during the rabi season, with the highest incidence in India (41%). Key factors include limited irrigation, capital constraints, labor shortages, and climate shocks. Causal analysis reveals that fallowing raises the probability of food insecurity by 15 percentage points in India and 9 points in Nepal. The study recommends improving irrigation access, expanding direct benefit transfers, strengthening crop insurance, and tailoring extension services to reduce fallowing and enhance food security. These findings also highlight the importance of context-specific policies to address land use inefficiencies and improve rural livelihoods in South Asia.

This study assessed livelihood security among diversified farmers in three agricultural situations of northern Bangladesh. A total of 348 households was selected using a multi-stage sampling technique. Data were collected through structured interviews and analysed using means, frequencies, percentages, chi-square tests, and analysis of variance. Livelihood security was measured across seven components comprising 35 items, assessed on a three-point continuum. The results revealed notable regional variation in livelihood security. Upland farmers scored highest in terms of habitat ( = 8.67), education ( = 7.57), health ( = 7.98), and environmental security ( = 8.90); Charland farmers presented relatively greater financial ( = 7.56) and social security ( = 7.71); and Barind Tract farmers showed relatively higher food security ( = 8.64). Overall, most farmers (85%) exhibited low to moderate livelihood security. Results revealed a significant association (?² = 10.74*) between agricultural situations and livelihood security. It further showed a significant difference (F = 4.334*) in mean scores, with Upland farmers achieving the highest overall mean score (46.75). The study concludes that agricultural situations significantly influence livelihood security among diversified farmers. It recommends context-specific, targeted policy interventions to address region-specific needs and improve overall livelihood security in northern Bangladesh.

The increasing significance of agricultural diversification lies in its ability to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of farming systems. This research investigated how diversification occurs and what enables farmers to shift from one system to another. A thematic analysis was employed for 13 case studies from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Our analysis revealed that agricultural diversification was predominantly practiced by marginal and small-scale farmers, and driven by location, growing market demand, and utilization of improved crop varieties. Motivation for diversification included potential increased returns and more consistent income streams. Technical advances (improved crop varieties, seeds, and techniques) and institutional involvement (new market arrangements) have resulted in increased incomes, diverse livelihoods, women's empowerment, and new market opportunities. Through the utilization of case studies, we offer valuable perspectives that can improve the effectiveness of suitable policies and collaborations that can enhance the welfare of farmers and contribute to regional food security.

Crop diversification is indispensable for the development of Agriculture in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) of South Asia. Given policy imperatives encouraging crop diversification, significant evidence, and knowledge gaps remain, with a lack of integrative studies that quantitatively and qualitatively assess the diverse and intricate dimensions of crop diversification within the broader context of the EGP. The study assesses the spatiotemporal patterns of crop diversification, aiming to elucidate the nuanced challenges associated with transitioning to more diversified cropping systems and identifying country-specific determinants within the EGP. Uses cross-sectional data from 1397 farm households across 72 communities in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Combine descriptive and quantitative analysis to explore seasonal and regional aspects of crop diversification. Besides, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) to assess current crop diversification levels. A Tobit Regression Model is used to identify the country-specific determinants of crop diversification. Results revealed significant variation in crop diversification across the EGP, with notable seasonal and regional differences. Family size influences diversification in all three countries, while factors such as joint decision-making with a spouse, solar-powered irrigation, and orchard ownership vary regionally. Rice remains dominant during the summer monsoon (kharif) season, but there is a shift towards greater diversification in the winter (rabi) season, suggesting potential for further diversification. This study provides a comprehensive overview of diversification patterns and their drivers in the EGP, capturing broad trends and local nuances. It offers valuable baseline information for promoting crop diversification and underscores the need for tailored approaches to enhance sustainability in this poverty-dense and agriculturally dependent region.

CONTEXT The Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) is a region characterized by smallholder-dominated farming systems, facing rapid socio-economic and environmental changes. Livelihood diversification away from traditional agriculture is increasingly seen as a strategy to enhance resilience, income stability, and food security among these smallholders. However, comprehensive understanding of diversification patterns and their drivers within the EGP remains limited. OBJECTIVE This study aims to elucidate the patterns of livelihood diversification in farming systems across the EGP, and identify the key factors driving diversification. METHODS Utilizing data from the Rupantar project involving a baseline survey of 1400 households across India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and a subsequent analysis employing the Simpson's Index of Diversity (SID) to quantify diversification levels. Multivariate regression models were used to explore the determinants of diversification, while disaggregating the analysis by country and diversification components (crop plot, crop non-plot, and non-crop non-plot). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The study revealed moderate levels of diversification across the EGP, with significant geographical and contextual variability. Key drivers of diversification included access to resources, gender, education, market access, and institutional support, with notable differences across countries and diversification types. Specifically, non-ownership of irrigation pumps, female household headship, and engagement in off-farm and non-farm activities emerged as significant predictors of higher diversification levels. SIGNIFICANCE This study contributes to a nuanced understanding of livelihood diversification in the EGP, highlighting the complexity of diversification patterns and the multifaceted nature of its determinants and impacts. By identifying specific drivers of diversification, the findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers aiming to support rural livelihoods in the region. Emphasizing the role of gender, resource access, and institutional support, the study underscores the importance of tailored interventions to enhance the resilience and sustainability of smallholder farming systems in the face of changing environmental and socio-economic conditions.

In southeast Asia, upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) is typically grown by subsistence farmers under shifting cultivation systems in mountainous regions. In Laos, glutinous upland rice is grown in the north and along the Laos-Vietnamese border in central and southern regions. Previous research has examined requirements for upland rice in northern Laos, but not in the south, which is lower in altitude, with higher evaporation. This paper examined the adaptation of six upland rice genotypes, (preferred traditional tropical japonicas Nok and Mak Hin Sung, preferred traditional indicas Laboun and Non, and improved indica B6144F-MR-6-0-0 (B6144), which were compared with a tropical japonica Local Check (which varied from site to site), over seven sites (from new to continuous cultivation) in southern Laos. Mean grain yield of the site ranged from 1.04 to 3.71 t ha-1, with higher yields in the wetter year 2011 than in the drier 2012 (3.19 t ha-1 with 1718 mm vs 1.23 t ha-1 with 1034 mm rainfall). Nevertheless, cluster analysis identified three sites and three genotype groups, which were not simply related to annual rainfall. Three principal component axes were associated with yield potential (PCA1), cultural history (PCA2), and resource limitation as the growing season progressed (PCA3). Consequently, upland rice response was related to 4 cultural history by year groups: Nong 2011 (E1: new cultivation, wet year, high yield potential), Xepon 2012 (E2: old cultivation, dry year, low yield potential), and intermittent stress (E3) associated with either old cultivation in a wet year (Xepon 2011) or new cultivation in a dry year (Nong 2012). Among genotypes, Nok, Non, and Laboun were high-yielding over sites (2.30 t ha-1), B6144 and Local Check were low yielding over sites (1.69 t ha-1), while Mak Hin Sung was highest yielding in the Xepon 2012 sites only (1.62 t ha-1). The results suggested a stronger importance of water deficit in southern Laos, especially during grain filling. Nevertheless, genotypes which performed well in southern Laos, the early indica Laboun and the specifically adapted tropical japonica Mak Hin Sung, were adopted by upland farmers in the south, and were still being grown there seven years later. Relative to upland and aerobic rice for northern Laos, which is exposed to only mild or intermittent water deficit, upland rice for southern Laos requires greater tolerance to water deficit.

Bangladesh’s agriculture is highly rice-centric. Although economically rational, this is also risky, and arguably unsustainable. As a result, there is increasing interest in crop diversification (CD). This study examines the policy environment and the implementation of projects promoting CD in Bangladesh from 1971 to the present. An integrated analytical framework, developed by the International Wheat and Maize Improvement Center (CIMMYT) was used. Despite numerous policies and projects aimed at promoting CD, progress remains limited due to historical biases and various challenges. This research identifies a significant gap in existing approaches, which primarily focus on production aspects while neglecting market systems for new crops. Additionally, inadequate coordination among government agencies has impacted the effectiveness of projects implemented by development partners. The study highlights that CD efforts have been largely project-driven and short-lived, emphasizing the need for mainstreaming CD with dedicated annual funding to ensure long-term sustainability. Key challenges in funding, market development, and implementation are identified. The study recommends mainstreaming CD through annual budgets and enhancing market linkages. Furthermore, it provides actionable guidelines for policymakers and practitioners to effectively promote and sustain crop diversification in Bangladesh’s agriculture.

Download This Paper Open PDF in Browser Add Paper to My Library Share: Permalink Using these links will ensure access to this page indefinitely Copy URL Copy DOI

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a catastrophic impact on public health, extending to the food system and people's livelihoods worldwide, including Bangladesh. This study aimed to ascertain the COVID-19 pandemic impacts on livelihood assets in the North-Western areas (Rajshahi and Rangpur) of Bangladesh. Primary data were collected from 320 farmers engaged in high-value agriculture using a multistage sampling method. The data were analysed using first-order structural equation modelling. The findings reveal a significant impact (p < 0.01) of the pandemic on all livelihood assets in Bangladesh. Notably, human assets exhibited the highest impact, with a coefficient of 0.740, followed sequentially by financial (0.709), social (0.684), natural (0.600), physical (0.542), and psychological (0.537) assets. Government-imposed lockdowns and mobility restrictions were identified as the major causes of the pandemic's negative effects on livelihoods, which included lost income, rising food prices, decreased purchasing power, inadequate access to food and medical supplies, increased social insecurity, and a rise in depression, worry, and anxiety among farmers. The effects of COVID-19 and associated policy measures on the livelihoods of high-value crop farmers have reversed substantial economic and nutritional advances gained over the previous decade. This study suggests attention to the sustainable livelihoods of farmers through direct cash transfer and input incentive programs to minimize their vulnerability to a pandemic like COVID-19 or any other crisis in the future.

Agriculture, a cornerstone of Nepal’s economy, is dominated by smallholder farmers cultivating staple crops under resource and input constraints, leading to declining productivity amid rapid population growth and urban migration. This study explores the role of agricultural diversification in enhancing dietary diversity and improving smallholder livelihoods using panel data from the Nepal Household Risk and Vulnerability Survey (2016–2018). Analysis through the Simpson diversification index and food consumption scores reveals a strong positive correlation between agricultural diversification and dietary diversity. Key determinants include market access, irrigation systems (rainfed or canal-based), input availability (fertilizers and labor), and land type. Dry season crop diversification was positively associated with dietary diversity, while market access showed a significant negative impact on dietary diversity as distance increased. Upland areas exhibited higher potential for diversification, especially in the dry season, driven by improved access to inputs and irrigation. Policy recommendations highlight the need to enhance infrastructure in upland regions, improve market access, and ensure input availability, particularly fertilizers and labor, to support seasonal diversification. Such measures are essential for strengthening food security, nutritional diversity, and economic resilience among smallholder farmers in Nepal.

Agriculture is the major economic source for the national GDP of Nepal, where the larger population of smallholder farmers engage in farming and grow few major crops using limited resources. According to recent data, agriculture production is declining gradually in contrast to the exponential population growth rate. Also, Rural populations are shifting towards urban areas resulting in numerous challenges and problems of food insecurity and malnutrition. However, the major reason behind malnutrition all over the globe is due to monocropping. Agriculture diversification is the strategic approach to overcome these challenges. We articulate two theories of Utility-Maximization theory and Entitlement theory to build a new theory of Utility-entitlement, which helps explain the relationship and causes related to agriculture diversification and food variety in Nepal. The secondary data were collected from the Nepal Household Risk and Vulnerability Panel Survey conducted over three years (2016-18). We use the Simpson diversification index, food consumption score, and linear regression model as a method of analysis. The result reveals that Agriculture diversification and dietary diversity have a highly positive significant relationship, and the major factor associated with this is Market access. Upland type, canal or rainfed irrigation, and market access are the factors for agriculture diversification. As a policy recommendation, the government and development sector should focus on a geographical approach- an upland area, especially during the dry cropping season facilitated with infrastructure and transportation for easy market access.

South Asiaʼs Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (EIGP) is home to approximately 450 million people. This region is characterized by the highest global concentration of rural poverty and a predominant reliance on agriculture for nutritional sustenance and economic livelihoods. Agriculture in the EIGP is highly cereal-centric, making crop diversification indispensable for its development. This data article is part of the research conducted by an interdisciplinary team of researchers analysing the status and determinants of crop diversification in South Asiaʼs EIGP. The data presented here were collected from 1,400 farm households across 72 communities in eight locations within the EIGP of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh during the year 2023. The research employed a simple random sampling method for empirical data collection. The primary agricultural decision-makers were given a tailored questionnaire comprising seven modules. These modules sought comprehensive data on livelihood practices, changes in agriculture, aspirations, diet, food security, mechanization, demographics, and asset ownership. The questionnaire was translated from English into Nepali and Bangla to facilitate a thorough understanding of the farmers' livelihoods in the study areas. The survey successfully ended with 1400 properly filled and captured questionnaires, which was quite representative. The cross-sectional data presented here describe location-specific farm-level crop distribution, enabling the analysis of geographic variations in crop diversification. The generation of this dataset addresses a significant gap in the availability of information on the current state of crop diversification in the EIGP, offering a foundational baseline for future research and interventions by regional governments and development partners. We employed the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) to calculate crop diversification and a Tobit Regression Model to identify the region-specific determinants of crop diversification. The dataset is hereby made available as it is considered vital for regional policy and practical recommendations.

While crop diversification has many benefits and is a stated government objective across the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) of South Asia, the complexity of assessment has led to a rather limited understanding on the progress towards, and status of, smallholder crop diversification. Most studies focus on specific commodities or report as part of a singular index, use outdated secondary data, or implement highly localized studies, leading to broad generalisations and a lack of regional comparison. We collected representative primary data with more than 5000 households in 55 communities in Eastern Nepal, West Bengal (India) and Northwest Bangladesh to explore seasonally based diversification experiences and applied novel metrics to understand the nuanced status of farm diversification. While 66 crops were commercially grown across the region, only five crops and three crop families were widely grown (Poaceae, Malvaceae, and Brassicaceae). Non-cereal diversification across the region was limited (1.5 crops per household), though regional differentiation were evident particularly relating to livestock and off-farm activities, highlighting the importance of cross border studies. In terms of farmer's largest commercial plots, 20% of systems contained only rice, and 57% contained only rice/wheat/maize, with substantial regional diversity present. This raises concerns regarding the extent of commercially oriented high value and non-cereal diversification, alongside opportunities for diversification in the under-diversified pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons. Future promotional efforts may need to focus particularly on legumes to ensure the future sustainability and viability of farming systems.

This study used a panel data model to examine the relationship between agricultural diversification and dietary diversity of farm households across three waves of nationally representative Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey data (BIHS- 2011-12, 2015, and 2018). Prior research measured diversification in terms of crop cultivation and livestock rearing. However, this study takes a different approach to measuring agricultural diversification by combining the three major sectors-crop, fish, and livestock production-at the farm household level to evaluate the impact of such agricultural diversification on the diversification of diets in households. The panel data allows us to establish that agricultural production diversification has a significantly positive effect on the dietary diversity of farm households. Moreover, other important factors that impact agricultural diversification to improve dietary diversity, like women's employment, market access, engagement with non-farm income sources, and access to information also have a strong association in improving the dietary status, food and nutritional security of households. Participation in the market helps farming households to become more commercially oriented but negatively affects the dietary diversification of the households. However, participation in non-farming activities was reported to have a significant positive influence on dietary diversity, though not as much as agricultural diversification. From the perspective of policy that requires nutrition into consideration, the findings suggest to focus on providing support for diversified farming systems can directly increase the nutritionally enriched dietary intake, increasing the employability of women. Promoting market participation through modern infrastructural facilities should be prioritized to improve the current scenarios.

This paper investigates the associations between agricultural diversification and dietary diversity among men, women and children of farm households in Bangladesh. Using three waves of nationally representative Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS- 2011-12, 2015 and 2018) data and a panel data model, the study found that agricultural production diversification can emphasize the dietary diversification across the life cycle of farm household members. The balanced panel data reveals that agricultural production diversification has a statistically significant and positive impact on dietary diversity of individual members (men, women and children) of farm households. Moreover, other important factors that impact on agricultural diversification and improve dietary diversity like women's education and employment, commercialization of farm households, access to non-farm income sources, and access to information facilities also have a strong association in improving dietary status, food and nutritional security as well. Although there is currently limited diversity in the diets of adult men, women and children of rural farm households, the situation can be improved over time with proper and consistent support. The findings suggest policy interventions should target not only agricultural diversification but also improve women's education and on and off farm employment opportunities and facilitate better access to information for rural households. These recommendations can support improved dietary diversity for all household members under different settings.

AbstractThe COVID-19 pandemic not only imposed severe health risks but also raised major challenges to the economy, due to widespread and severe measures to control the spread of the disease. Food value chains were disrupted by restrictions of the movement of people and commodities, which had significant impacts on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The purpose of this research is to determine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Bangladeshi vegetable farmers. A total of 320 vegetable farmers were selected from the North-West region of Bangladesh. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected through a digital survey method. Analysis revealed that around 3–5% of the marketed surplus of the farms was reduced during the pandemic due to the disturbances. The majority of the farm households reported that there was a significant reduction in their family income and, as a consequence, around 38% of farm households had cut down on their food consumption during the pandemic. The farmers were found to follow different strategies to cope with the difficulties and respond to government initiatives to mitigate such impacts. Despite all the restrictions and risks, extension services were still available to help the farmers. On the basis of the findings, this study suggests the importance of collaborative participation of the relevant bodies to decrease the effects of COVID-19 on farm households by employing all available mechanisms and focusing more on identifying effective coping strategies that can be supported in the event of future shocks, for more sustainable and resilient food systems.

Food security in Lao PDR, a small nation in southeast Asia categorized as low-income food-deficit, is strongly dependent on the success of the rainfed lowland rice crop in the southern provinces. Soils there are sandy in texture, low in water-holding capacity, and low in pH and available nutrients. Farmers are reluctant to apply recommended fertilizer doses, as rainfall and crop responses are unreliable. This paper examines fertilizer response, and considers opportunities to improve the risk profile. The effects of 12 fertilizer-water-genotype treatment combinations were examined across 60 locations, and combined analysis of variance and pattern analysis was used to examine crop response and its relationship to soil fertility, genotype, and climatic variability. The results showed there was little relationship between soil test and grain yield in unfertilized plots, suggesting nutrient release and capture were more important than soil nutrient concentration, so integrative measures of soil nutrient release should be more promising. Despite low yield in the absence of applied nutrients (0.89–2.66, mean 2.18 t ha-1), NPK alone increased yields by 1.0 t ha-1 on average (1.48–3.86, mean 3.12 t ha-1), while water and genotype together with NPK increased yields by up to a further 1.0 t ha-1 (1.95–4.76, mean 3.42 t ha-1). Fertilizer responses were greater and more reliable when soil nutrient buffering capacity was greater, which, together with seasonal expectations, could be used to better inform decisions on fertilizer application in relation to risk. A longer-term and moderate input strategy was proposed in order to gradually improve fine-fraction SOC, soil nutrient buffering, and soil microbial biomass, in order to improve soil nutrient and water retention and release characteristics. This strategy should be evaluated in future research.

Under short-term submergence (7–15 days), submergence-tolerant rice genotypes (e.g. TDK1-Sub1) have been reported to be higher yielding than their intolerant equivalents without the Sub1 gene. This paper examined whether TDK1-Sub1 was superior to Other locally-preferred genotypes, with and without submergence, using 66 on-farm comparisons in southern Lao PDR. Data were examined for 2 genotype categories (TDK1-Sub1, Other) in 3 environment groups (Favourable, Drought, and Submergence), with 22 farms per group used as replicates. Farmers saved seeds of TDK1-Sub1, planted it again in flood-prone fields, and disseminated its seeds to relatives, neighbours and friends, but they did not do so in areas with lower flood risk. Grain yield was generally higher under Favourable conditions (2.42 ​t ​ha−1) than under Submergence (1.94 ​t ​ha−1) or Drought (1.90 ​t ​ha−1). Under Submergence, the grain yield of TDK1-Sub1 (2.22 ​t ​ha−1) was significantly higher than the Other genotype (1.65 ​t ​ha−1; P ​< ​0.10). Conversely, under Drought, the grain yield of TDK1-Sub1 (1.58 ​t ​ha−1) was significantly lower than the Other genotype (2.22 ​t ​ha−1; P ​< ​0.10). Submergence-tolerant genotypes should enhance system intensification and food security in submergence-prone areas, but yields of other locally-preferred genotypes were more stable in the absence of submergence, especially under late-season drought. Current efforts to introgress additional resistances into submergence-tolerant genotypes are worthwhile, to reduce any downside risk in the absence of flooding. Nevertheless, for Lao PDR and others who prefer glutinous rice, the Sub1 gene should be introgressed into the best-adapted glutinous rice genotypes, which already possess other resistances.

Traditional cropping practices in the Eastern Gangetic Plains, South Asia, are resource intensive, requiring large inputs of water, energy and human labor. They are also inefficient, with relatively low productivity for the inputs used although the climate, soil and water resources of the region indicate that greater productivity is achievable. In on-farm experiments conducted across three countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal) we compared the performance of traditional and improved management practices to understand which better facilitated the production of food-grain crops while reducing energy and water demands, thus improving the sustainability of cropping system energy requirements. Benefits of improved over traditional management practices included increases of up to 10% in crop grain yields; up to 19% in water productivity; up to 26% in energy productivity; and reductions of up to 50% in labor. These metrics combined to reduce the cost of production under improved management by up to 22% and to increase gross margins by up to 100% (although in most instances gross margins increased by 12–32%). CO2-equivalent emissions reduced by 10%–17% compared to traditional practices.