Abstract This research encompasses the extraction of oil from velvet seed to produce biodiesel for the synthesis of surfactant Methyl Ester Sulfonates (MES). In the local government of koro-Ekiti in Kwara State in mr siji abayomi’s farm the velvet seed were harvested, which was then cleaned, dried, and ground. Soxhlet apparatus was used to extract oil from velvet seed at an optimum conduction of concentration of mass to solvent ratio, temperature and time. The was oil refined and trans-esterification using a mole ratio of 1:10 for the oil and methanol, the best optimum oil yield was employed to manufacture biodiesel. MES surfactant was then created using sodium bisulfite (NaHSO 3 ) as the sulfonating agent. The results from the design expert's analysis for the optimization of the extraction process of velvet seed oil indicate that from the ANOVA the F-value and P values are significant for the parametric condition because the values of R 2 and R 2 adj are 0.9774 and 0.9571, respectively, which are very close to 1.The findings of the analysis of velvet oil, biodiesel, and diesel from fuel stations were studied and characterized using the physio-chemical characteristics, GCMS, FTIR, and surface tensiometer of velvet seed. As demonstrated by the FTIR and surface tensiometer results, the ideal MES sample can easily produce an oil/water emulsion due to its low critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 0.080g/L and surface tension of 36.78, 32.10, and 34.16 mN/m at varying pH levels of 5, 7, and 8. The presence of Methylene bending vibration make it good reagent for the production of surfactant at a peak value of 79.54% as examined by the FTIR.The H-CH rocking (bending) vibration of the methylene group strengthens C-O stretching vibration of ester groups at 64.32% of lower wavelength.

The utilization of vegetable oils as renewable feedstocks is gaining more grounds in the polymer industry as replacement for petroleum-based feedstocks due to environmental challenge. There is a dire need to meet the recent increased demand for vegetable oil feedstock for oil-based alkyd resins production. Hence, black sesame (Sesamum radiatum) oil, a non-conventional raw material was investigated for alkyds production. The oil was extracted, characterized and refined. Medium-oil alkyds, alkyd-x and alkyd-y, with 48% and 52% oil contents respectively, were synthesized via two-stage alcoholys is-poly esterification process with glycerol and phthalic anhydride. Oil yield, density, specific gravity, viscosity; iodine, acid and saponification values were 28.2%, 0.934 g/ml, 0917, 0.045 poise, 106.6 gI2/100g oil, 0.73 mgKOH/g and 188 mgKOH/g of oil respectively. Densities, specific gravities, viscosities, and acid values of alkyd-x and alkyd-y were obtained as 0.886g/ml and 0.933 g/ml, 0.869 and 0.915, 60.4 m.Pa.s and 65.5 m.Pa.s, 14.55 mg KOH and 11.93 mg KOH respectively. Successful polyesterification was confirmed on FTIR spectra. Pencil hardness test indicated highest hardness at 5H for alkyd-x while gloss retention was 60.2%.

Abstract This research encompasses the extraction of oil from velvet seed to produce biodiesel for the synthesis of surfactant Methyl Ester Sulfonates (MES). In the local government of koro-Ekiti in Kwara State in mr siji abayomi’s farm the velvet seed were harvested, which was then cleaned, dried, and ground. Soxhlet apparatus was used to extract oil from velvet seed at an optimum conduction of concentration of mass to solvent ratio, temperature and time. The was oil refined and trans-esterification using a mole ratio of 1:10 for the oil and methanol, the best optimum oil yield was employed to manufacture biodiesel. MES surfactant was then created using sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) as the sulfonating agent. The results from the design expert's analysis for the optimization of the extraction process of velvet seed oil indicate that from the ANOVA the F-value and P values are significant for the parametric condition because the values of R2 and R2 adj are 0.9774 and 0.9571, respectively, which are very close to 1.The findings of the analysis of velvet oil, biodiesel, and diesel from fuel stations were studied and characterized using the physio-chemical characteristics, GCMS, FTIR, and surface tensiometer of velvet seed. As demonstrated by the FTIR and surface tensiometer results, the ideal MES sample can easily produce an oil/water emulsion due to its low critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 0.080g/L and surface tension of 36.78, 32.10, and 34.16 mN/m at varying pH levels of 5, 7, and 8. The presence of Methylene bending vibration make it good reagent for the production of surfactant at a peak value of 79.54% as examined by the FTIR.The H-CH rocking (bending) vibration of the methylene group strengthens C-O stretching vibration of ester groups at 64.32% of lower wavelength.

Plastic litter has become a major concern in solid waste management in recent times due to the adverse effect on the environment. In most developing countries, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) waste bags and sachets constitute a significant portion of plastic wastes that are generated daily, leading to an unnecessary environmental burden that needs to be addressed. In this study, we report the use of Prosopis africana pod particles as fillers in LDPE matrix (obtained from waste plastic sachets) for biocomposite production. Biocomposites were produced from 150µm average filler size for 10, 20, 30 wt% filler contents, using hand lay-up method. The compression, flexural, impact, and tensile strengths; water absorption and the biodegradability characteristics of the prepared biocomposites were determined using ASTM standards. In comparison with the control sample, the prepared biocomposites samples exhibited 103% improved impact strength of 34.3 J and better resistance to deformation (flexural modulus of 348.9 N/mm2; Young’s modulus of 237.9 N/mm2) at 30 wt % filler content. Biocomposite sample with the 10 wt% gave the highest tensile strength of 8.3 N/mm2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis of the fractured sample shows good adhesion in the matrix. Findings from this work indicate that valorization of LDPE waste sachet and prosopis pods agricultural residues can be a value-addition, affordable waste management method for producing biocomposites towards indoor applications.

The environmental hazard posed by fossil fuels has continued to be a major global concern, arousing more research interests towards biofuel production from energy crops and agricultural residues. In this study, biomass residue from African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophyla Benth) seed husk (AOBSH) was characterized for potential application as a feedstock for the production of bio-oil via pyrolysis. The proximate, ultimate and thermogravimetric analyses were determined for AOBSH according to standard methods. The proximate analysis shows low ash content (0.71%) and volatile content of 76.2% of the husk favorable to high bio-oil yield, while the TGA analysis result indicates that only 19.502% of the weight was left at a temperature of 457.64˚C. The ultimate analysis revealed relatively high carbon content (47.65%), desirable heating value (19.5 MJ/kg), low nitrogen (< 1%) and sulphur (< 0.1) contents. The cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and extractive contents were determined as 42.34, 19.2, 14.47 and 23.99% respectively. Based on the favorable results, African oil bean seed husk is recommended as a suitable potential biomass feedstock for bio-oil production.

TThe less exploited seed oil of almond was investigated for its potential utilization as a raw material for the synthesis of metal carboxylates. The oil was extracted from the almond seeds and a yield of 42% was obtained. The oil was characterized and used to synthesize the carboxylates of barium, calcium, cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel and zinc. The functional groups of fatty acid carboxylates produced were confirmed by FTIR. The characteristic colours of the carboxylates were white (barium, calcium, magnesium and zinc carboxylates), ash (Cobalt carboxylate), mint green (copper carboxylate), brown (iron carboxylate), and lemon green (nickel carboxylate). The pH of the solutions of the metal carboxylates varies from 6.6 to 10 with no free alkaline. The foam stability test revealed a length of 1.3 cm for barium carboxylate and 0.3 cm for magnesium carboxylate while other carboxylates did not foam.

One of the major setbacks to biodiesel production is its relatively higher cost compared to petroleum diesel. Eggshell and waste chicken fat are poultry wastes that can be valorized as cheap sources of catalyst and oil respectively for the production of biodiesel. In this work, eggshell waste catalyst was investigated for the transesterification of waste chicken fat as an affordable value addition process applicable especially in developing countries. The heterogeneous catalyst prepared by calcination of eggshell at 1000 degrees C was used in the transesterification experiments, considering catalyst concentration and reaction time. SEM analysis of the prepared catalyst indicated that the shape and size of the particles of derived eggshell decreased after calcination. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis confirmed the biodiesel produced at the highest yield. A maximum yield of 90.2% biodiesel was obtained at 2% catalyst weight and 2 h reaction time. The properties of the biodiesel (acid value, saponification value, viscosity) conformed to ASTM standards. The yield shows that eggshell waste is a potential affordable catalyst source for biodiesel production from chicken fat feedstock.

Zinc metal soaps are of great importance in the manufacture of personal care products and other industrial applications. Variations in the soaps and their properties are usually due to the type of oil used in the synthesis. Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa), being a valuable industrial raw material, was investigated for the synthesis of zinc metal soap. Locally obtained shea butter was characterized, refined and used to synthesize metal soap of zinc which was characterized. The zinc soap produced exhibited an off-white appearance, pH of 7.8, non-foaming, and no free alkalinity present. The functional groups in the soap were confirmed by FTIR.

Synthesis of the heterogeneous chicken eggshell catalyst (CEC) using thermal treatment at temperatures of 800 °C (CEC800) and 900 °C (CEC900) for palm kernel biodiesel (PBD) production was undertaken. The morphology, chemical composition, and surface area of the catalysts were determined. Catalyst’s efficiency in the production of biodiesel from palm kernel oil was studied using a definitive screening design of optimization technique. The optimization parameters investigated were calcination temperature, catalyst quantity, methanol:oil molar ratio, and reaction time. The stability of the catalyst after the 5th cycle of repeated usage was studied. The CEC900 contained the highest chemical composition of 32.36% (wt) calcium with the morphology of highly porous, uniformly distributed spherical shape, with no agglomeration. A surface area of 120.4 m2/g and a smaller pore size of 1.324 nm were obtained from the CEC900. The optimal operating parameters of 4% (w/w) catalyst quantity, 10:1 methanol:oil molar ratio, 50 °C reaction temperature, 1 h reaction time, and 900 °C calcination temperature were obtained to yield optimum biodiesel of 97.10%. Qualitative characterization confirmed that the CEC900 is suitable to produce quality PBD of ASTM standard. Reduction in the catalytic activity of 6% PBD was noticed in the 5th cycle. Therefore, thermal-modified CEC is a suitable and low-cost catalyst for biodiesel production.

Avocado (Persea americana) is a plant native to tropical America but available in most other tropical areas of the world. In comparison to other fruits, the avocado contains a significant amount of oils which are highly rich in fatty acids. This study considered the response surface modelling and optimisation of the production of biodiesel from Avocado plant (P. americana) oil using methanol and NaOH catalyst. The basis of this work was a reliable dataset already presented in the open literature. An empirical correlation was developed from the available dataset to predict the biodiesel yield of Avocado plant (P. americana) oil based on known levels of the key process parameters and an ANOVA showed it to be significant. It was also observed that temperature, methanol-oil ratio and time are the more significant process factors. Numerical optimisation revealed that the optimal values of the factors are 61.63 degrees C temperature, methanol-oil ratio of 7.21mol/mol, catalyst loading of 1.15%w/w and process time of 88.61min to give a predicted optimal biodiesel yield of 97.32%.

Biomass conversions into value-added products have been done through biochemical, chemical and thermochemical processes. Pyrolysis is an existing popularly adopted thermochemical methods for biomass conversion. Pyrolysis process involves thermal decomposition which occurs above 400 °C without oxygen. During this pyrolysis process, organic matters are transformed into gases, liquids and solid residues containing carbon and ash. Pyrolysis occurs in two distinct steps, removal of moisture and condensation of volatiles into liquid fraction. These steps are controlled by some parameters, such as the feed properties, rate of heat transfer to the feeds, the residence time and the reaction temperature. Although pyrolysis has long been an established process usually practised in the chemical industry for the production of various chemicals from wood, it has become an important means of biomass conversion and a precursor to biorefining opportunities with future prospects.

Biomass residues from plants and animal sources have been considered as organic materials useful for bioenergy production. The characteristics of a particular biomass sample are part of the factors that influence the properties of the resultant products used for bioenergy purpose. The choice of biomass feedstock and its suitable characterization method is therefore an important prerequisite step towards the determination of biomass fitness for thermal conversion methods. Biomass waste resources can be characterized using various techniques such as proximate, compositional, ultimate and thermogravimetric analyses. Important biomass characteristics include moisture content, volatile matter and ash content for proximate analysis while ultimate analysis provides information on elemental composition of the biomass. The compositional analysis involves the determination of the neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) contents of the biomass for estimating the hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents of the biomass. Thermogravimetric analysis is used to determine the kinetic parameter of samples under different conditions. New evolving biomass characterization methods and analytical techniques are discussed including current trends, results, challenges and future outlook The evolving methods and analytical techniques are motivated by the need for efficient high-throughput methods to analyse biomass for thermochemical conversion.

Mitigation of the environmental burden associated with indiscriminate disposal of post-consumer low density polyethylene (LDPE) packaging material is receiving attention in recent times. There is a need to search for alternative reuse of the accumulating plastic wastes constituting pollutants in our environment. This work involves the preparation and evaluation of the bio-composite samples from post-consumer low density polyethylene water sachets and parinari fruits shell. Biocomposite samples of filler percentages 10, 20 and 30% were produced. The mechanical properties of the samples were determined as function of filler content and particle size according to ASTM standards and confirmed with SEM. The samples had desirable hardness strength of 4568.9 N/mm(2) and desirable biodegradability for 30% filler weight of particle size 4 mm. The biocomposite samples exhibited desirable impact (51.75 kJ/m(2)), tensile (10.02) and flexural strength (18.23 N/mm(2)) with the 10% weight samples. The findings in this study suggest that post-consumer LDPE wastes can be valorized by conversion to biocomposites using biomass wastes such as parinari shell as cheap value-addition material, providing a cheap potential waste management method for solving the global plastic waste crisis.

A solid catalyst for biodiesel production was synthesized from dolomite by calcination at different temperatures of 800 and 900oC for 2 h. The catalyst was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET). Its performance in the production of palm kernel biodiesel (PKB) using palm kernel oil in an optimization study was carried out by a definitive screening design. The varying process parameters for the optimization were methanol:oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, catalyst quantity, reaction time and dolomite calcination temperature. Tendency and extent of the catalyst reusability were also studied. The catalysts were found to contain calcium and magnesium oxides with morphological structures of: surface areas 507 and 560 m2/g, pore volumes 0.180 and 0.199 cm3/g, and pore sizes 27.07 and 31.48 Ȃ for Dolomite Catalyst Calcined (DCC) at 800oC (DCC800) and DCC at 900oC (DCC900), respectively. The optimal parameters of methanol:oil molar ratio 12:1, temperature 65oC, catalyst quantity 8% (w/w), time 4 h and DCC800 gave an optimum yield of 98.69% biodiesel. The catalyst was reused for the 8th cycle after which the %yield of PKB decreased by <4%. It can be concluded that the dolomite catalyst has a great activity and potential as a viable catalyst for quality biodiesel production.

Biofuels are attracting a lot of research attention as a source of renewable energy due to environmental benefits and prospects of energy security. The expectation of the global community is particularly high towards Sub-Saharan African countries like Nigeria to meet the growing bioenergy needs by harnessing the abundant supply of biomass feedstock. However, lack of home-grown technology has been one of the major drawbacks of biofuel industrialization in Nigeria. Although a reasonable amount of biofuel research effort has been embarked on locally in Nigeria, most of these research works have remained on the shelf instead of being translated into commercial production. This paper reviews some biofuel research work done on Nigerian biomass. It recommends that funding the existing and new biofuel research work in Nigeria and channeling research towards industrialization as important drivers towards biofuel production in Nigeria

Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the major agricultural products of tropical West Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. In this study ASPEN plus V8.8 was used to develop a thermodynamic model for the pyrolysis of rice husk. The model was validated and found to be accurate especially on the domain of oil and gas yields. It was used to study the effect of temperature on the product yield and oil composition. The fluid products increase with temperature and an optimum of 60% can be obtained from rice husk. The optimum oil yield was 44.2% obtained at 400°C. The synthesis gas was composed basically of hydrogen gas, methane and traces of higher hydrocarbons, the char consisted of carbon and silicon oxide ash while the oil was made-up of acidic organic compounds, aldehydes, pyrolytic water and others. At 600°C, the predictions revealed an oil composition of 84.7% acids, 7.9% pyrolytic water, 7.42% aldehyde and traces of alcohol and other compounds. The results from the thermodynamic predictions showed that rice husk is an excellent feedstock for the biofuels production via the thermo-chemical energy conversion route. The study has provided a useful framework for proper comparisons of the energy potential between different biomass feedstock.

The growing interest in using sustainable raw materials coupled with the need to reduce the over- dependence on non-renewable petroleum resources has made agricultural residues attractive raw material for biofuel production. The potential utilization of cocoa pod ash (CPA) as a bio-based catalyst for the production of biodiesel from waste chicken fat was investigated. Bio-based catalyst was obtained from cocoa pods by ashing method. The catalyst was subjected to scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis. The experimental design was based on a five level, two factor central composite design. CPA was used in the preparation of biodiesel from waste chicken fat (WCF) using a two-step esterification-transesterification process. The highest biodiesel yield of 75.4% was obtained at 3 wt % catalyst concentration and 2 hours reaction time. The results obtained by GCMS analysis confirmed the fatty acid methyl ester production. The biodiesel properties such as density, viscosity, saponification value, iodine value, acid value and colour suggested CPA as a potential bio-based catalyst for transesterification of oil obtained from waste chicken fat.

The utilization of dedicated energy crops and agricultural residues for producing biofuels and bio-oil in a range of energy conversion technology is attracting more research interests. Pyrolysis is one of such important thermochemical method for converting lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels. This work investigates the pyrolysis of residues from a dedicated energy crop, jatropha of Nigerian origin using intermediate pyrolysis. Pyrolysis of Jatropha biomass residues [Jatropha fruit shells (JFS) and Jatropha seed coat (JSC)] was carried out in a tubular fixed bed reactor at a temperature of 450oC, using intermediate pyrolysis method. Bio-oils were obtained and subsequently characterised for their physico-chemical properties. The yields of the resulting bio-oil, biochar and gas were determined. The compositions of the bio-oils obtained were also determined by gas-chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur (CHNS) elemental analysis. The main constituents of the bio-oils obtained from JFS and JSC were acetic acid, guaiacol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol and phenol. The empirical formula of the obtained JFS and JSC bio-oils were found to be CH1.77 O0.28 N0.04 and CH2.03 O0.47 N0.04 respectively. The bio-oil samples that were produced from JSC and JFS of Nigerian origin were found suitable for bio-oil production. Valuable compounds found in the bio-oils indicated potential industrial applications.

In response to the global recognition of bioenergy as a significant source of renewable energy necessary for mitigating the global environmental challenge, the Governments of various African countries are starting to develop their economic and energy policies towards the adoption, development, production, and utilization of biomass for production of biofuel in some African communities. Although, Government’s role and policy have been identified as key factors for effective adoption of biomass energy, the implementation, its production, and utilization is not yet at fully blown stage in most countries of sub-Saharan African. Despite the challenges of non-competitive price of biofuel with fossil fuel and threat of electronic vehicle induced biofuel demand decrease, biofuel has potentials for alternative uses worthy of consideration in African countries. This paper reviews the current developments in adopting biofuel production and utilization in some sub-Saharan African countries, identifying the causes of being at the early stage, despite the enormous potential. This paper also recommends a strategy for achieving a relatively rapid outcome in bioenergy policy implementation in sub-Saharan African. Keywords— Bioenergy, biodiesel, biofuel, biomass, policy, Sub-Saharan African

This study investigates the thermochemical properties of the separate components of jatropha biomass residues of Nigerian origin towards bio-oil production. The biomass residues ( Jatropha curcas fruit shells and seed coat) were obtained from their mature jatropha fruits and subjected to physico-chemical characterization (structural composition analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, proximate and ultimate analyses). The structural compositions (extractives, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents) of jatropha fruit shell and jatropha seed coat were 3%, 34.0%, 40.0% and 12.7%, and 42.3%, 32.5%, 10.5% and 5.7%, respectively. The thermogravimetric analysis showed that the ash contents of jatropha seed coat and jatropha fruit shell were 0.8% and 15.4%, respectively. The carbon contents were 48.3% and 41.5%, while measured calorific values were 20.06 MJ/kg and 17.14 MJ/kg for jatropha seed coat and fruit shell, respectively. The carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur contents were found comparable with those in the literature. This study indicated that the thermochemical properties of the Nigerian Jatropha fruit and seeds residues were comparable with literature values and residues were found suitable for bio-oil production.