In 2015, an orchard trial of ten apple rootstocks was established at ten locations in the United States and Canada using 'Modi (R)' as the scion cultivar. Trees were managed in accordance with United States organic standards to expose these rootstocks to the nutrient conditions and biome typically associated with organic tree-fruit production. Rootstocks included nine named Cornell-Geneva clones [Geneva (R) 11 (G.11), Geneva (R) 30 (G.30), Geneva (R) 41 (G.41), Geneva (R) 202 (G.202), Geneva (R) 214 (G.214), Geneva (R) 222 (G.222), Geneva (R) 890 (G.890), Geneva (R) 935 (G.935), and Geneva (R) 969 (G.969)] and M.9 NAKBT337. All trees were spaced 1 x 3.5 m and trained using the tall spindle system. After 5 years, the greatest mortality was for trees on M.9 NAKBT337 (14%). Rootstocks separated into size classes from large semi-dwarf to small dwarf. G.890 resulted in large semi-dwarf trees, and G.202 produced moderate semi-dwarfs. G.41 and G.30 resulted in small semi-dwarf trees, and trees on G.935 were large dwarfs. G.11, G.214, G.969 and M.9 NAKBT337 resulted in trees that were moderate dwarfs, and G.222 resulted in small dwarf trees. The most yield efficient (cumulatively, 2016-19) trees in the trial were on G.935, G.11, and G.969, and the least efficient trees were on G.202 and G.890. The largest fruit (2016-19) were harvested from trees on G.30, G.41, G.890, and M.9 NAKBT33, and the smallest were harvested from trees on G.202.

For commonly grown dessert apple cultivars, chemical thinning or the removal of some fruit each season helps maintain fruit size, quality, and annual bearing characteristics. Chemical thinning is often achieved with applications of carbaryl at petal fall alone or in combination with other plant growth regulators (PGRs). This traditional thinning program used for dessert fruit does not adequately thin European-origin cider apples resulting in insufficient return bloom or inconsistent cropping from year to year. On dessert apple cultivars with biennial bearing tendencies, midsummer applications of PGRs are used to enhance fruit bud development for the following year. In 2019, experiments were conducted in two apple orchards in Vermont, US. The primary objective was to evaluate the effects of naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and ethephon alone and in combination with carbaryl on return bloom, crop yield, and fruit and juice quality. During the two years of the study, 'Harry Masters Jersey' and 'Kingston Black' both demonstrated strong biennial production habits producing few flowers and fruit in 2020. Ethephon applications alone and in combination with carbaryl showed advanced ripening and fruit softening in 'Somerset Redstreak' during the year of treatment. 'Kingston Black' had increased fruit softening with ethephon only applications. Growth regulator treatments did not consistently affect juice quality between cultivars. During the treatment year, 2019, all ethephon treated 'Somerset Redstreak' had a higher pH, and juice from trees treated with Ethephon and carbaryl had a lower titratable acidity. 'Kingston Black' juice was unaffected by PGR applications.

The maintenance of optimum mineral nutrient fertility is a limiting factor in organic vegetable systems, with many growers resorting to applications of off-farm commercial fertilizer inputs. In this study, pelleted sheep's wool was compared against a standard commercial fertilizer product for effects on productivity and plant growth in spinach and tomato. Two rates of wool pellets were applied; one was standardized to the nitrogen inputs of the 'grower standard' commercial treatment, and a second higher rate which was suggested by the pellet manufacturer with about 2.5 times the nitrogen content. Overall, few differences were observed among the fertilized treatments. Crop yield for both tomato and spinach generally increased with increasing fertility application, with no differences between commercial and wool pellet fertilizers applied at the same rate of nitrogen. The uptake of mineral nutrients in spinach plant tissues differed for K, Mg, P, S, B, and Ca, but there was no general trend that could be attributed to a particular treatment. Tomato fruit quality was the same for all treatments, but non-fertilized fruit had lower total polyphenols than the highest-fertility treatment. Overall, wool pellets performed very similarly to commercial organic fertilizer for both crops and could be a promising alternative that may open up opportunities for greater integration of plant and animal systems on diversified farms.

Susceptibility to diseases of economically important grapes is critical to the evaluation of germplasm recommended for commercial production and for the development of sustainable production systems. In 2018–2019, the cold-hardy grape cultivars including ‘Brianna’, ‘Crimson Pearl’, ‘Itasca’, ‘Louise Swenson’, ‘Marechal Foch’, ‘Marquette’ ‘Petite Pearl’, ‘St. Pepin’, and ‘Verona’ were evaluated on non-treated vines for susceptibility to downy mildew, powdery mildew, black rot, anthracnose, Phomopsis leaf spot and fruit rot, and Botrytis bunch rot. No cultivars were consistently disease-free, and all exhibited some degree of black rot and powdery mildew infection. Relative susceptibility to disease was not consistent across both years, but ‘Brianna’ had greater incidence of black rot and ‘Louise Swenson’ showed lower incidence of powdery mildew in both years. The relatively new cultivars ‘Crimson Pearl’ and ‘Verona’ exhibited comparatively moderate disease susceptibility overall. Growers typically manage diseases with fungicides on commercial farms, so cultivar susceptibility is just one component of a sustainable pest management and production system.

Crop load management is a critical component of commercial apple production. For commonly-grown dessert cultivars, removal of a portion of fruit each season via chemical thinning helps to maintain fruit size, quality, and annual bearing characteristics. Commonly-used thinning protocols in northeastern USA orchards include application of carbaryl at petal fall alone or in combination with other plant growth regulators (PGRs). European-origin cider apple cultivars typically do not respond similarly to chemical thinning programs used in production of dessert fruit. In the past two decades, application of PGRs at a later timing in midsummer has increasingly been used to increase fruit bud development for the following year on certain dessert apple cultivars with pronounced biennial bearing tendencies. In 2016 and 2017, multiple PGR programs were applied to 'Kingston Black' and 'Ellis Bitter' trees in a commercial orchard in Vermont, USA. Trees were evaluated for crop yield and juice quality in each season. During the two years of the study, both cultivars exhibited a strong biennial production habit. Within each year, PGR treatments had inconsistent effects on crop yield, but no effects of practical significance on juice quality. Despite a lack of PGR effects on substantially reducing biennial bearing, interactions of specific treatments and cultivars may inform continued research on this topic.

Annual pruning of apple tree canopies is a common and recommended practice in commercial orchards. Pruning is performed to renew vegetative and reproductive wood, to improve sunlight and air penetration into the tree canopy, and to develop and maintain tree structure. However, annual pruning, particularly of relatively large, mature trees, is among the highest labor expense in orchards. In recent years, substantial growth in the production and sales of fermented cider has led to increased demand for fruit from cideries. While prices for traditional dessert cultivar fruit from cideries have increased, they remain uncompetitive with prices from the fresh fruit market for those same cultivars. In order to meet price points for cider apples, cost reductions are sought through reduced pruning intensity which may improve profitability, but may come at the sake of fruit quality or long-term crop yield. In this experiment, mature, freestanding 'McIntosh' and 'Empire' trees on semi-dwarf rootstock on two farms in Vermont received different pruning intensity and were evaluated for crop yield, fruit quality, net income, and juice characteristics important to cidermaking. There were few differences attributable to pruning treatment for most assessed parameters. Non-pruned trees had improved net income over pruned trees in both orchards, but all treatments showed negative profitability under a model where fruit were sold solely to cideries instead of to higher-valued fresh markets.

Fermented cider production has increased rapidly in the U.S. in the past five years, which has necessitated an evaluation of apple cultivars used for cider making. Cider apples may be simply defined as any apple that is used in cider production, but the real answer is more complicated. The selection of apple cultivar is possibly of greatest concern to cidermakers for overall product quality. However, unlike in the case of grapes and wine, specific cultivars are rarely sought by the end consumer as a primary means of identifying ciders. Ciders are typically made from multiple apple cultivars, including dessert fruit as well as specialty cultivars with unique acidity characteristics and phenolic compounds that contribute complexity to the finished product. In traditional cider-producing regions in the U.K. and France, for example, specialty cultivars make up the majority of ciders produced, and are grown in separate production systems tailored to their unique horticultural characteristics which rely heavily on mechanization to make up for low fruit price. In contrast, the supply of specialty cider apples is low in the U.S., and domestic cider production relies primarily on dessert fruit cultivars culled from fresh market channels or from processing orchards. Dessert cultivars commonly-grown in Vermont generally exhibit lower levels of phenolic compounds and higher levels of malic acid than specialty cultivars. However, there is limited research on horticultural and disease susceptibility characteristics of specialty cider fruit in Vermont or surrounding regions which limits present recommendations to stakeholders for best cultivars and production systems suited to cider apple production.

Sales of fermented apple cider have tripled in the US since 2007, with increases in both the quantity of cider sold by existing cideries and of new entrants in the cidery market. The cider market is differentiated between large national, mid-size regional, and small local producers. Industry characteristics in Vermont are similar to those of the national cider market and production is dominated by one large international cidery, followed by 17 smaller regional or local cideries. In total, over 1.9 million L of cider was produced by Vermont cideries from local or regionally-grown apples in 2015. Present levels of cider production and trends for future growth raise questions about apple growers' abilities to meet market demand. At the same time, new and expanding cideries are concerned about availability of apples. The Vermont apple industry is primarily oriented toward fresh fruit production, and prices received for marketable fresh fruit are several times greater than for cider fruit though recently the price received from the fresh market has decreased. Nevertheless, apple growers have expressed a guarded interest in growing apples for cideries but there are unknown variables such as the yield of cider-specific cultivars, availability of cider cultivars from nurseries, management practices unique to cider cultivars, and orchard establishment cost. In the immediate future, growers are more interested in diverting apples sold for the fresh market to the cider market. To inform management decisions, we used data from four Vermont orchards who currently grow for the fresh market to calculate current cost of production and to model cost of production under varying management scenarios such as reduced use of chemicals and harvesting labor. We then conducted a net present value analysis to analyze the profitability potential of various management scenarios and various apple markets.

Vermont and other cold regions of the US which experience winter temperatures below -20 degrees C produced virtually no winegrapes before the mid-1990s. Cultivar and planting system adoption have changed rapidly in the past two decades as cultivars with increased cold hardiness and wine quality potential have become available. In the mid-1990s, the first commercial vineyards were established in the State of Vermont, and consisted of French hybrid and 'hardy' vinifera as well as cold-hardy releases from public and private breeding programs. Training systems included mid wire cordon and Geneva double curtain. Private and public breeding programs located primarily in the upper midwestern US released cold-hardy winegrape cultivars in the late 1990s, continuing releases into the 21st century, resulting in increased vineyard establishment. 'Frontenac' and "La Crescent' were the first of these cultivars to be planted in any quantity in Vermont, followed by 'Marquette'. Training systems adopted for newer cold-hardy cultivars include predominantly high wire cordon, with mid wire cordon and Geneva Double Curtain used to a lesser degree. Continued releases of new cold-hardy cultivars having greater potential for quality wine and trials of advanced selections have facilitated increased vineyard plantings and replanting of older, less desirable cultivars.

Fungal diseases and cold temperatures can be limiting factors when growing winegrapes in the northeastern USA. A research vineyard was planted at the University of Vermont Horticultural Research and Education Center in South Burlington, Vermont in 2007 with winegrape cultivars considered to be the most "promising" based on the experience and insights of Vermont grape growers. A randomized complete block design of six replicated blocks with four-vine plots of each cultivar per block was used and included six cultivars: 'Frontenac', 'La Crescent', 'St. Croix', 'Marquette', 'Prairie Star' and 'Corot Noir'. The vines were planted at a spacing of 1.8x3.0 m and trained to a high-wire cordon system. All cultivars received the same fungicide treatments each year totaling five in 2014 and six in 2015. Foliar and fruit cluster disease assessments including incidence and severity measures were performed each year. Diseases assessed included powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator); downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola); black rot (Guignardia bidwellii); Phomopsis leaf spot and fruit rot (Phompsis viticola); angular leaf scorch (Pseudopezicula tetraspora); anthracnose (Elsinoe ampelina); and Botrytis bunch rot and blight (Botrytis cinerea). There was no single cultivar that was consistently more resistant to all the foliar or cluster diseases in this study and the ranking of cultivar susceptibility varied depending on the growing season and the disease. It is important to note that powdery mildew emerged as the most prevalent cluster disease with all cultivars showing at least 93% incidence in both growing seasons. Cultivars differed in foliar susceptibility to downy mildew, yet no symptoms on the fruit were observed in either year. Although disease susceptibility is an important component of selecting a cultivar, future research should incorporate yield and marketability, non-sprayed plots, comparison of multiple fungicide programs and the impact of training systems.

Grape and wine production is a relatively new agricultural enterprise in Vermont with a history of only two decades. Winegrape cultivar performance has been evaluated at the University of Vermont Horticulture Research and Education Center in South Burlington, VT (USDA hardiness zone 5a) since 2007. Six winegrape cultivars were assessed in a randomized complete block design of six blocks with four vine plots of each cultivar per block: 'Corot Noir', 'Frontenac', 'La Crescent', 'Marquette', 'Prairie Star', and 'St. Croix'. Vines were trained in a bilateral cordon system at a density of 1,793 vines ha(-1). Assessed horticultural parameters included: vine pruning weight; primary winter bud survival, shoot production from retained nodes; crop yield; and juice quality parameters. 'Frontenac', 'La Crescent', 'Marquette', 'Prairie Star', and 'St. Croix' rated well for measurements of cold hardiness and vine vigor. All cultivars in the trial had economically acceptable mean annual crop yield, except 'Prairie Star' which had lower mean annual crop yield than most other cultivars. 'Corot Noir' had among the highest crop yield, but suffered from greater winter damage and is likely marginal for cold hardiness in many season at the trial site. 'Frontenac', 'La Crescent', and 'Marquette' produced juice with higher titratable acidity (TA) and soluble solids than other cultivars, and 'Corot Noir' and 'St. Croix' juices ranked lower for those variables. Of the evaluated cultivars, 'Marquette' and 'La Crescent' exhibit the best juice quality, crop yield, and cold hardiness characteristics and are especially suited for commercial production in Vermont.

Apples are among the most important agricultural crops produced in Vermont. Despite research on and advances in IPM implementation in northeastern U.S. apple systems, pesticide applications remain a primary practice. Adoption of IPM implementation by Vermont apple growers was evaluated in a 2017 survey. Questions covered topics including farm demographics, self-reporting of IPM knowledge and status, relative importance of arthropod posts and diseases, practices that impact pollinators and crop pollination, use of electronic IPM decision support systems, scouting practices used in orchards, and tolerance of pest damage on fruit sold to alternative markets. Respondents reported apple scab (Venturia inaequalis ((Cooke) Wint.) and fire blight (Erwinia amylovora (Burrill)) as their most important diseases and apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh)) and codling moth (Cydia pomonella (L.)) insect pests of concern. A mean 10.9 and 5.7 fungicide and insecticide applications were made to manage pests and diseases. Growers reported high adoption of pollinator protection practices, and over half of respondents reported reliance of wild pollinators. All respondents used the regional NEWA decision support system and rated its usefulness highly overall. However, on-farm pest monitoring programs showed lower levels of adoption, and respondents indicated a lack of comfort with protocols for monitoring certain key pests. Survey response information may be useful in tailoring educational and outreach materials to improve IPM practice adoption and reduce grower risk.

Hard cider production in the United States increased annually by 27.3% between 2011 and 2016, totaling $300.4 million in revenues in 2016. Yet the production of cider-specific apples—apples with the unique flavor, acid, and tannin characteristics suited only to hard cider production—remains limited. This research project is a follow-up of Becot, Bradshaw, Conner’s (2016) study, which highlighted the mismatch between cider-makers’ preferred cultivars and current apple production in Vermont and suggested potential opportunities for the Vermont economy if cider-makers increased their production using state-grown cider-specific apples. Their study highlighted that the planting of new apple cultivars is a long-term investment and a commitment that apple growers most likely will not undertake unless they have assurances that cider-makers will buy the apples at an attractive price when the trees start producing. They concluded that one of the main challenges facing orchard diversification for hard cider is to create successful collaboration between supply chain actors. This research update presents the results of 15 semi-structured interviews conducted with apple growers and cider-makers between February and September 2016 to assess the optimal strategic partnership mechanisms to jump-start the cider industry in Vermont. Two strategic partnership mechanisms were presented to interviewees: production contracts (used in the well-established English cider industry) and cooperatives (used in the well-established French cider industry). Interviewees rejected both mechanisms to put new cider-specific apple trees in the ground in Vermont on a short-term timescale. Apple growers expressed a need for more support on how to grow cider-specific cultivars. The most pressing issue is not the cider-specific fruit supply but a lack of consumer demand for ciders made from cider-specific fruits. A clearer distinction between cider styles (stereotyped by the “beer-like” and “wine-like” ciders) may be needed to develop consumers’ cider-literacy and increase demand. In November 2016, a survey was sent to the 17 Vermont cider-makers asking whether they would like to craft and market some of their ciders under a label that would differentiate and define the different cider styles. Three types of labels were proposed: one that is place-based, one that is process-based, and one that is taste-based.

The results presented summarize six years of seasonal data of disease symptoms and arthropod infestations and/or damage on foliage and fruit on five organically-managed apple cultivars (`Ginger Gold, 'Honeycrisp, 'Liberty; `Macoun, and `Zestar!') grown in a newly planted orchard (Orchard 1) and a top-grafted established orchard (Orchard 2). Significant differences were found among cultivars for all assessed diseases in the study. 'Ginger Gold' and `Macoun' had significantly greater foliar and fruit scab than 'Honeycrisp' and 'Liberty' in both orchard systems. The low incidence of scab on 'Honeycrisp' foliage and fruit and `Zestarr fruit was not statistically different than the scab-resistant cultivar 'Liberty' on which no scab was observed. Apple rusts were present on foliage, with 'Ginger Gold' and 'Honeycrisp' having the highest incidence and `Zestarr having the lowest in both orchards. `Macoun' and 'Liberty' ranked the highest in the percentage of fruit without arthropod damage in both orchard systems but differences among the other cultivars were not distinct. Management of lepidopteran pests of fruit was a major challenge on all cultivars over the years of the study. European red mite incidence was high in both orchards, but only in Orchard 2 were there differences among cultivars, where 'Ginger Gold' and 'Honeycrisp' had greater incidence than `Macoun' and `Zestarr, with 'Liberty' not different from any other cultivar. Rankings of disease and arthropod damage and incidence were similar in both orchards, which suggests that the orchard systems were not a major factor in pest management among the cultivars.

Apple growers may use several training systems to establish orchards intended for organic management, including the planting of new nursery trees and top-grafting existing orchards to convert to selected cultivars. Long-term economic analysis of certified organic orchard systems is critical to evaluate potential profitability of the enterprise. The overall objective of this project was to evaluate long-term economic performance of five apple cultivars ('Ginger Gold, 'Honeycrisp, 'Liberty, `Macoun, and `Zestarr) grown in a newly planted orchard (Orchard 1) and in a top-grafted established orchard (Orchard 2). Actual management costs including labor, equipment, and inputs costs were recorded, and commercial grades for fruit and projected net income ha-1 for each cultivar for each system were assessed over the study period. There were few differences among cultivars for the percentage of fruit in each grade. Mean separation of fruit grade distribution within each cultivar was variable, and in Orchard 2, three of the cultivars (i.e., 'Ginger Gold, 'Liberty; and `Macoun') had the highest percentage of fruit in the US#1 Count grade, with `Honeycrisp' fruit distributed equally into US#1 Count, Utility and Cull and with 'Zestar!' having no difference in % of fruit into US#1 Count and Utility grades. All cultivars in Orchard 1 had negative net present value (NPV) after 20 years. In Orchard 2, 'Ginger Gold' attained positive NPV in Year 3, 'Liberty' in Year 5, and 'Honeycrisp' in Year 7, and `Macoun' and `Zestarr in Year 8. Income calculations, which incorporate disease and arthropod impacts through fruit grade and horticultural performance through crop yield, and the long-term economic projections provide comprehensive information which apple growers can use to determine which cultivars and orchard system would be best for their organic enterprise.

Adequate tree growth and crop yield are essential to the long-term success of orchard systems and these are often challenges when systems are managed organically in the northeastern US. The objective of this project was to evaluate horticultural performance of five apple cultivars (`Ginger Gold; 'Honeycrisp', 'Liberty, `Macoun, and `Zestar!') grown under organic management in both a newly planted orchard (Orchard 1) and in a top-grafted established orchard (Orchard 2). Results summarize tree growth and crop yield of each cultivar in both production systems over eight seasons from 2006-2013. There were no differences in tree survival among the cultivars in Orchard 1, where survival ranged from 97.8 to 100%. However, only 65.8% of `Macoun' and 63.2% of `Zestarr trees survived in Orchard 2. There were cultivar differences in tree growth parameters within the two orchard systems. However, in both orchards, 'Ginger Gold' had the greatest, or was among the cultivars with the greatest shoot growth, tree height, and tree width. 'Ginger Gold' was also among the highest-yielding cultivars in all years in Orchard 1, and in three of six years in Orchard 2. `Macoun' had among the lowest crop yield in most years in both orchards. 'Ginger Gold' and 'Honeycrisp' had among the highest cumulative yield per tree in Orchard 1. 'Ginger Gold' in Orchard 2 had the highest cumulative yield per tree of all cultivars. These results combined with analyses of disease and arthropod incidence and economic performance comparing the five cultivars within each orchard system will aid growers in their decision-making to select cultivar(s) and orchard establishment methods for an organic production system.