Fresh leafy vegetables have gained popularity in Tanzanian cities due to their nutritional benefits and increased promotion by health practitioners. Assessment of their microbiological quality and safety is essential for determination of associated health risks. This study enumerated Fecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB) for determination of microbiological quality and safety of fresh leafy vegetable salads sold by street vendors and raw leafy vegetables obtained from Sinza market in Dar es Salaam. Handling practices, awareness and consumer satisfaction on the safety of leafy vegetable salads was also assessed among salad street vendors and consumers. Samples were collected from four stations and analyzed for FIB namely Total Coliforms (TC) and Fecal Coliforms (FC) using standard methods. Handling practices, awareness and satisfaction among vendors and salad consumers were assessed using structured questionnaires. The results showed that TC counts, expressed as colony-forming units per gram of sample (CFU/g), in salad and leafy vegetable samples ranged from 1.42 ± 0.58 × 10⁵ to 1.60 ± 0.68 × 10⁵. Similarly, FC counts ranged from 5.96 ± 2.55 × 10⁴ CFU/g to 6.28 ± 2.24 × 10⁴ CFU/g. Both TC and FC levels exceeded the recommended limits set by international and Tanzanian standards, indicating unacceptable microbiological quality and potential public health risks. These findings indicate inadequate hygienic handling and sanitation practices along the leafy vegetable supply chain and highlight the need for strengthened food safety interventions. Such interventions should include targeted hygiene training for vendors, improved consumer awareness, routine monitoring of salads, and stricter enforcement of existing food safety regulations

Soda lakes are special ecosystems with high salinity and alkalinity, notably found in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa. Given the unique nature of soda lakes, it is interesting and valuable to examine their bacterial composition as an initial step towards bioprospecting. This study provides the first metagenomic snapshots of bacterial communities inhabiting Lake Natron sediments using the 16S rRNA gene sequenced using a PacBio sequencing system. Results show high abundance and diversity of species in general, with notable dominance of Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Actinomycetota, and Proteobacteria with the relative abundances of 45.21 %, 25.23 %, 12.59 %, and 23.29 %, respectively. At the class level, Bacteroidia (23.54 %), Gammaproteobacteria (22.32 %), Bacilli (19.66 %), and Clostridia (22.32 %) were the most dominant classes. At lower taxonomic ranks (especially at the genus and species levels), there was an increase in the percentage of unknown and "Candidate Phyla" species (i. e., those discovered using genetic methods but not yet fully characterized or classified), suggesting the potential presence of new bacterial taxa in Lake Natron. The diversity indices revealed a high level of community diversity, with a large number of species, the presence of rare species, and an even distribution of bacteria across the sampling points. Although this study provides the first report on the existence of different bacterial taxa in Lake Natron, additional investigation into the biotechnological importance of the found species is of importance; hence, a functional metagenomic study is advised.

Actinomycetota are renowned for their production of bioactive compounds, which play a crucial role in various healthcare industries. Significant research has been done on discovering active bioactive compounds from Actinomycetota strains in terrestrial soils, but very little has been done on marine Actinomycetota strains. In this study, we used ethyl acetate to prepare crude extracts from four selected Actinomycetota strains namely, Streptomyces (THD8), Micrococcus (SIS1), Micrococcus (SIS5), and Microbacterium (SIP6), isolated from seagrass meadows in Tanzania, and the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique was used to identify the compounds they contain. Fifty nine bioactive compounds from the Actinomycetota were identified, of which 14 have no previously reported biological activities; an important new finding of this study. Furthermore, most of these identified compounds are reported for the first time in Actinomycetota species. The most commonly found compounds were n-hexadecanoic acid, 7,9-di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro(4,5)deca-6,9-diene-2,8-dione, and azelaic acid. Streptomyces was found to contain more compounds compared to the other three Actinomycetota species studied. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of Actinomycetota associated with the Tanzanian seagrass species that may be leveraged for novel therapeutic strategies.

Seagrasses are highly productive coastal ecosystems that harbor diverse bacterial communities, including both culturable and unculturable taxa. These bacteria play vital roles in ecological, biogeochemical, and biotechnological processes. In this study, a metagenomic approach using Pacific Biosciences next-generation sequencing was employed to investigate bacterial diversity associated with Thalassia hemprichii and Syringodium isoetifolium collected from the Mjimwema coast, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Results revealed that T. hemprichii supported greater bacterial species diversity (117 OTUs) compared to S. isoetifolium (109 OTUs). Among plant compartments, roots harbored the highest diversity, followed by rhizosphere sediment and leaves. The phylum Proteobacteria dominated across all samples (24.85–99.23%), with Gammaproteobacteria (20.58–99.11%), Vibrionales (7.86–98.91%), Vibrionaceae (7.88–98.91%), and the genus Vibrio (4.79–91.99%) as the most abundant taxa. Although this study did not establish the functional roles of the identified bacteria, it provides the first comprehensive insight into the bacterial diversity associated with T. hemprichii and S. isoetifolium in the Western Indian Ocean. The findings offer a valuable baseline for future research aimed at functional characterization of seagrass- associated microbiomes, particularly their ecological roles and potential biotechnological applications.

The microbial diversity of Tanzania remains largely understudied. We reviewed information on the diversity and biotechnological potential of Actinomycetota bacteria collected in the marine environment. Bacteria from this phylum are acknowledged as a source of bioactive compounds used in antibiotics, pesticides, growth promoters, and enzymes. To date, 32 species have been reported from marine habitats (sediments, seagrass beds, mangroves) in Tanzania, and more than 40 strains have been isolated. Further exploration of natural products from Actinomycetota is required, including for compounds with anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-tumor, cytotoxic, and anti-bacterial properties.

Abstract. Mbusi LD, Lyantagaye SL, Lyimo TJ. 2024. Phylogenetic relationship and biotechnological use potential of epiphytic Actinomycetota species isolated from seagrasses from the coast of Tanzania. Asian J Trop Biotechnol 21: 41-51. Actinomycetota, previously recognized as actinobacteria, has demonstrated considerable promise as a valuable reservoir of secondary metabolites with potential pharmaceutical applications. This study examined the diversity, antimicrobial properties, and cytotoxic effects of epiphytic Actinomycetota species isolated from the seagrasses Thalassia hemprichii and Syringodium isoetifolium. Therefore, 12 strains of Actinomycetota were isolated through a process involving assessment of their morphological and biochemical characteristics, along with phylogenetic analysis using partial sequences of the 16S rRNA gene. The identified strains were associated with eight phylogenetic genera: Cellulosimicrobium, Corynebacterium, Microbacterium, Rhodococcus, Arthrobacter, Leucobacter, Dietzia, and Micrococcus. The findings unveiled five potential new species within Actinomycetota. Seven of the 12 strains displayed antimicrobial effects against at least one human pathogen tested. Notably, the Microbacterium strain SIP6 exhibited extensive antimicrobial efficacy against all the pathogens under examination. Toxicity tests revealed that only two strains (Microbacterium (THP6) and Micrococcus (SIP14)) were nontoxic, with the lowest LC50 values of 3836.7 and 1243.4 ?g/mL, respectively, while the remaining extracts were toxic. This study marks the initial discovery of epiphytic Actinomycetota strains from seagrasses in the western Indian Ocean. The isolated epiphytic Actinomycetota strains, some of which are novel, showed potential for bioactive metabolites that hold promise for biotechnological use.

Research on Actinomycetota species is becoming increasingly significant, not only for their ecological and taxonomic aspects, but primarily for their unique metabolites that hold potential for therapeutic uses. In this study, Actinomycetota bacteria strains were isolated from the sediments of two seagrass meadows, Thalassia hemprichii and Syringodium isoetifolium, as well as from plain sediment (without seagrasses) at Mjimwema, Tanzania, in the Western Indian Ocean. The isolates were identified through their morphological and biochemical characteristics, along with molecular techniques. Additionally, antimicrobial and cytotoxicity tests were also conducted. Fifteen different strains of Actinomycetota were isolated, and based on phenotypic and phylogenetic characteristics, they were grouped into seven different genera, namely: Micrococcus, Microbacterium, Ornithinimicrobium, Cellulomonas, Cellulosimicrobium, Luteimicrobium, and Dietzia. Results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed eight potential new species of Actinomycetota from these sediments. Genus Micrococcus was dominant in all samples, followed by Microbacterium. Furthermore, genera Ornithinimicrobium and Cellulosimicrobium appeared only in T. hemprichii sediment, while Luteimicrobium and Cellulomonas were observed in plain sediment only. To the best of our knowledge, genera Cellulomonas and Luteimicrobium are reported for the first time in marine sediment. The crude extract of the isolates exhibited antimicrobial effects against Candida albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The results revealed that sediments within seagrass meadows harbor unique Actinomycetota species capable of producing secondary metabolites with potential therapeutic uses. Therefore, additional research is necessary to thoroughly characterize the novel species and identify the chemical compounds responsible for the observed antimicrobial activity and bioprospecting.

Microbial food quality serves to indicate health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated foods. This study aimed to determine the microbial quality of fresh juices and the level of awareness and perception of the consumers and juice vendors at Ilala Ward, Dar es Salaam. Fresh samples of sugarcane, mango and mixed fruit juices were collected from four different sampling stations and analysed using standard methods for Total Coliform (TC), Faecal Coliform (FC) and Total Viable Count (TVC). The level of awareness and perception of 60 juice vendors and 60 consumers were also assessed by using questionnaires. The results showed that TC numbers ranged from the lowest mean of 6.100±4.180x106 to 7.483±3.650x107 MPN/ml, FC ranged from 2.566±0.989x106 to 2.017±1.687x107 MPN/ml while TVC ranged from 5.046±1.032x109 to 5.871±0.835x109 CFU/ml of fresh juices. The level of TC, FC and TVC was beyond the recommended international and Tanzanian standards showing that fresh juices posed a high risk for consumers. On the other hand, 42% of the juice consumers had low awareness of microbial contamination of fresh juices, which leads to high health risks. It is recommended that street juice vendors should adopt proper hygiene measures and undergo appropriate training on microbial quality, food safety and sanitation.

The quality of water used for the irrigation of leafy vegetables in urban settings is in doubt due to contamination associated with poor hygiene and water pollution. This study examined the microbiological quality of irrigation water and leafy vegetables at Chang’ombe in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania as well as the perceptions and level of awareness of nearby consumers. Water and leafy vegetable samples were analysed for faecal coliform (FC) using standard techniques. Perception and awareness of consumers were collected using a questionnaire survey. The results showed an average FC count of 406.1 ± 16.40 MPN/100 ml for the irrigation water. The sweet potato leaves and amaranth had FC counts of 11.40 ± 5.220 CFU/g and 17.60 ± 11.98 CFU/g respectively. The levels of FC in irrigation water and leafy vegetables were within the allowed limits by WHO and NAS-USA standards respectively but fall short of some stricter European standards for irrigation water. The household survey showed that consumers perceive irrigation water at Chang’ombe as polluted and may be one of the main sources of food contamination. They minimize associated health risks in various ways such as using clean storage, washing and cooking. It was concluded that the microbial quality of water used for irrigation of leafy vegetables at Chang’ombe poses no risk to public health, but based on tighter standards, improved public awareness of hygienic practices is crucial to address potential risks.

Seagrasses in Tanzania have traditionally been used as a remedy against various diseases including stomach problems. This study determined antibacterial activities and phytochemical composition of seven seagrass species against Salmonella typhi, a causative agent of typhoid fever. Crude extracts were obtained using methanol, dichloromethane and hexane solvents. All extracts showed antimicrobial activities against S. typhi. Hexane extracts showed highest activities with maximum inhibition zone and lowest Minimum Inhibition Concentrations (MIC). The seagrasses Halodule uninervis and Cymodocea serrulata exhibit strong antimicrobial activity against S. typhi, by having the lowest MIC of 0.39 mg/ml. Most extracts were non-toxic, with Cymodocea rotundata having the lowest toxicity level (LC50 = 2521.31 mg/ml) and Thalassia hemprichii the highest (LC50 = 0.038 mg/ml). Seven phytochemical groups, namely alkanoids, saponins, tannis, diterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic and cardiac glycosides were detected. There was no significant difference in antimicrobial activity and phytochemical content between leaves and root extracts. This study established for the first time that seagrasses of Tanzania contain promising antibacterial bioactive compounds against S. typhi. The results corroborate indigenous knowledge and may be useful in the development of novel antibacterial drugs that will help to solve problems of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria like S. typhi.

Bacteria are the largest and most essential microorganisms in wastewater treatment systems. Despite the vital role bacteria play in enhancing wastewater treatment, its community structure and diversity remain poorly known. This study elucidated bacterial diversity and community structure in constructed wetlands (CWs) for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment using a culture-independent approach. Analysis of physicochemical parameters and Illumina high-throughput sequencing of V3 and V4 hypervariable regions of 16S rRNA gene bacterial community was performed. The results showed that the Proteobacteria were dominant (48.66%) phyla across all CWs. The Gammaproteobacteria class (27.67%), family Comamonadaceae (35.79) and Genus Flavobacterium (4.35%) were dominant across studied CWs. Bacterial abundance increased from the inlet to the outlet, with CWs having a higher abundance around the outlet, showing a good performance. The Shannon–Wiener index showed the highest species diversity (H = 1.45) in Banana Investment Limited CWs treating industrial wastewater. This study found significant bacterial diversity across studied CWs, with higher abundance and diversity at the outlet indicating better performance than those with low abundance and diversity at the outlet. We recommend a longitudinal investigation at each CWs section to confirm and establish the role of bacterial diversity on the performance pattern of CWs.

Soda lakes are naturally occurring ecosystems characterized by extreme environmental conditions especially high pH and salinity levels but harboring valuable microbial communities with medical and biotechnological potentials. Lake Natron is one of the soda lakes situated in eastern branch of the East African Gregory Rift valley, Tanzania. In this study, the taxonomy and phylogenetic diversity of Actinomycetota species were explored in Lake Natron using molecular techniques. The sequencing of their 16S rRNA gene resulted into 13 genera of phylum Actinomycetota namely Streptomyces, Microbacterium, Nocardiopsis, Gordonia, Dietzia, Micromonospora, Microcella, Pseudarthrobacter, Nocardioides, Actinotalea, Cellulomonas, Isoptericola, and Glutamicibacter. We describe for the first time, the isolation of Streptomyces lasalocidi, S. harbinensis, S. anthocyanicus, Microbacterium aureliae, Pseudarthrobacter sp., Nocardioides sp. and Glutamicibacter mishrai from soda lake habitats. It also reports for the first time, the isolation of Gordonia spp., Microcella sp. and Actinotalea sp. from an East African Soda Lake as well as isolation of S. pseudogriseolus, S. calidiresistens and Micromonospora spp. from a Tanzania soda lake. Furthermore, two putative novel species of the phylum Actinomycetota were identified. Given that Actinomycetota are known potential sources of important biotechnological compounds, we recommend the broadening of the scope of bioprospection in future to include the novel species from Lake Natron.

Wastewater treatment systems, such as Constructed Wetlands (CWs) and Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs), have untapped biodiversity enhancement and development potential. Birds, insects, and reptiles, which are displaced by human development, might find refuge in these ecosystems. However, the lack of a detailed characterization of the biodiversity status of these wastewater treatment systems hinders their widespread adoption. Point counts, direct observations, and camera traps were used to assess bird diversity across five CWs and three WSPs in Tanzania in 2021. For insects and reptiles, pitfall and pan traps were laid along established transects, in addition, direct observations and fishnets were also used to assess the reptiles dwelling within the WSPs. Abundance, Shannon index, Simpson index, Margalef index, and evenness index were the diversity parameters used to analyze the diversity of birds, insects, and reptiles. Our results show that among the studied groups and between WSPs and CWs, birds had high species abundance (n = 1132), richness, Margalef index (D = 4.266), evenness (E = 0.815), Shannon diversity (H = 2.881) and Simpson index (lambda =0.903). The abundance and diversity of studied groups differed significantly (P < 0.05) between WSPs and CWs. Our study also recorded four reptile species belonging to three orders. Molecular analyses confirmed that insect species belong to nine orders and 13 families, with the order Diptera dominating both CWs and WSPs, followed by Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Araneae. We conclude that CW and WSP wastewater treatment systems are important for hosting various populations of birds, reptiles, and insect species.

Lake Bunyonyi ecosystem plays vital roles in water resource conservancy and tourism. Nevertheless, the rapid increase in human population and the unrelenting human activities are threatening the values, functions, and ecological integrity of the lake. In this study, the public perceptions of drinking water quality and its health implications in the Lake Bunyonyi Sub-catchment, Western Uganda are presented. A closed-ended questionnaire was administered to 267 respondents living within one Kilometre away from the lake shores. Besides, observation and interview methods were used to complement data collected by the questionnaire method. Results indicate that the prominent activities around the lake are peasantry and small-scale businesses attributed to soil fertility and rural tourism. Despite the lake being a popular source of drinking water in the sub-catchment, the quality of its water suffers from diffuse pollution and little has been done to avert it. This study recommends regular surveillance and water quality testing to increase people’s awareness of water quality. Besides, the local authorities should train people the alternative environmentally-friendly farming practices like afforestation with correct tree species and agro-forestry practices to increase vegetation cover and reduce soil erosion debris washed into the lake system. Environmental-friendly household water treatment methods (biosand filtration and solar disinfection) should be promoted to improve the quality of drinking water.

The study was conducted to assess the spatial and temporal variations of the trophic state condition of Lake Bunyonyi between October 2019 and September 2020. Secchi depth (SD), total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll- a (Chl- a ) concentration were measured to aid the quantification of trophic state condition of the lake using Carlson trophic state index (CTSI). The trophic state index (TSI) values based on SD, TP and Chl- a values were 60.82 ± 5.35, 68.99 ± 11.04 and 61.74 ± 7.51, respectively. March 2020 recorded the highest mean CSTI value (70.14 ± 4.04), while in September 2020, the lowest mean value (58.03 ± 6.22) was obtained. Based on CTSI values, the lake was eutrophic in both dry and wet seasons albeit with differences in the values. The eutrophic state of the lake is possibly attributed to nutrients inflow into the lake via runoff and drainage from farmlands. The negative value of TSI-Chl- a –TSI-TP deviation pointed out that the lake is not phosphorus limited, while the positive TSI-Chl- a –TSI-SD mean deviation value revealed the effect of Chl- a and TP on the lake’s transparency. The study recommends the necessity to develop guidelines for the trophic status monitoring of Lake Bunyonyi since results suggest the deteriorating lake condition.

Mangrove forest sediments produce significant amounts of methane, but the diversity of methanogenic archaea is not well known at present. Therefore, 16S rRNA gene libraries were made using archaea-specific primers and DNA extracted directly from Tanzanian mangrove sediment samples as a template. Analysis of sequence data showed phylotypes closely related to cultivated methylotrophic methanogenic archaea from the marine environment, or distantly related to acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogenic archaea. In an attempt to isolate relevant methanogenic archaea, we succeeded in obtaining a new mesophilic methylotrophic methanogenic archaeon (strain MM1) capable of utilizing methanol and methylated amines as the only substrates. Under optimum conditions, the cells of strain MM1 exhibited a high specific growth rate (mu) of 0.21+/-0.03 (i.e. doubling time of 3.2 h) on both methanol and trimethylamine. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain MM1 clustered with five environmental clones, indicating that MM1 is an important methanogenic methylotroph in mangrove sediments. Based on physiological and phylogenetic analyses, strain MM1 is proposed to be included in the species of Methanococcoides methylutens.

The Momela soda lakes consist of seven small, hypersaline, alkaline lakes, situated in the East African rift valley at Arusha National Park, Tanzania. The lakes are fed by separate underground water sources with slightly varying mineral contents resulting in colour variation and supporting different kinds of prokaryotic and eukaryotic species. In this study, the diversity of Actinobacteria in surface water and sediments of five Lakes were investigated using culture-dependent and culture-independent molecular techniques. A total of 34 out of 112, and 13 out of 85, representatives of Actinobacteria isolates and clones, respectively, were selected for gene sequencing using the CD-HIT program. Analysis of their 16S rRNA gene sequences displayed the presence of species affiliated to 15 different genera, namely Mycobacterium, Rhodococcus, Microbacterium, Isoptericola, Dietzia, Leucobacter, Jonesia, Nesterenkonia, Micrococcus, Streptomyces, Hoyosella, Norcadiopsis, Cellulomonas, Bogoriella, and Agromyces. The results showed 5 and 12 putative new Actinobacteria isolates and clones, respectively. This is the first report of isolation of bacteria from the genus Mycobacterium from a soda lake globally, as well as the genera Hoyosella, Isoptericola, Jonesia, Micrococcus, Leucobacter and Agromyces from a soda lake in East Africa. Because Actinobacteria are known as a source of biotechnologically important compounds, the species revealed set a platform to search for novel bioactive compounds.

The purpose of this study was to examine the spatial and temporal variations of phytoplankton species composition and biomass in Lake Bunyonyi, South-Western Uganda. Samples were collected monthly from nine fixed stations in the lake from October 2019 to September 2020. Based on the morphological characterization, 52 different species of phytoplankton were recorded. These were dominated by cyanobacteria (21 species) and chlorophytes (15 species) followed by diatoms (10 species), euglenophytes (4 species), dinoflagellates (2 species), and cryptophytes (1 species). The biomass (Chl-a concentration) ranged from 0.019 ± 0.009 mg/L at Heissesero station to 0.045 ± 0.013 mg/L obtained at Nyombe station. On a temporal basis, the highest mean Chl-a concentration of 0.044 ± 0.03 mg/L was recorded in March 2020 while the least concentration of 0.015 ± 0.011 mg/L was obtained in September 2020. Significant differences existed in the Chl-a concentration values between stations and across sampling months. Chl-a concentration was significantly positively correlated with dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity but negatively correlated with temperature. The Shannon–Wiener index and evenness put it clear that the distribution of phytoplankton species in the lake is inequitable. Besides, 94.2% of the phytoplankton species revealed had never been reported by the previous studies in the study area. The dominance of species cyanobacteria (such as Microcystis spp., Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Anabaenopsis sp., and Anabaena sp.) presents potential future challenges to water quality management. Therefore, the establishment of a strong and committed committee dubbed “Lake Bunyonyi Water Management Committee” to oversee the activities and avert potential water quality challenges is strongly recommended. The existence of some toxic phytoplankton species calls for regular monitoring and careful use of the lake and its food products.

Extreme environments such as soda lakes are potential sources of microbes with biotechnological applications in different sectors. This study aimed at isolation, characterization and investigation of antibacterial potential of actinobacteria from Momela Soda Lakes, at Arusha National Park in Tanzania. One hundred and twenty (120) isolates were recovered from soil and water samples using the dilution plate technique. The isolates were morphologically and biochemically characterized, and further, screened for antimicrobial activity by disc diffusion method as well as the micro dilution technique. Cytotoxic effects were determined using the brine shrimp lethality test. Results showed that, all 120 isolates were Gram-positive rod-coccus shaped. Forty-four out of them showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The Streptomyces (101TI) and Dietzia (56BI) strains exhibited exceptionally higher antibacterial activity compared to the rest with inhibition zones of 16.25 and 21.00 mm, respectively. These two strains were toxic against brine shrimp-larvae. Microbacterium (5LI), Hoyosella (113BI), Streptomyces (62BI), Dietzia (117SI), Hoyosella (37SI) and Microbacterium (3BI) strains had low antibacterial and cytotoxic activities. This study therefore revealed that Momela Soda Lakes harbour actinobacteria with antimicrobial potential. Keywords: Actinobacteria; antimicrobial activity; extremophiles; Momela soda lakes

This study assessed the social knowledge, attitude, and perceptions (KAPs) on wastewater treatment, the technologies involved, and its reuse across different wastewater treatment areas in four regions of Tanzania. We used both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods in a household-level questionnaire (n=327) with structured and semi-structured questions, which involved face-to-face interviews and observation. Our results show that social KAPs surrounding wastewater treatment and reuse were sufficient based on KAP scores achieved from asked questions. However, the general knowledge on treatment technologies, processes, and reuse risks was still low. Of the respondents, over 50% approved using treated wastewater in various applications, while the majority (93%) were reluctant if the application involved direct contact with the water. Furthermore, over 90% of interviewees did not know the technologies used to treat wastewater and the potential health risks associated with its use (59%). Multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant differences (P<0.05) in the KAPs on treated wastewater across different studied demographic variables, i.e., age, sex, and education level. Therefore, we recommend that more effort be spent on providing public education about the potential of wastewater treatment and existing technologies in order to facilitate their adoption for the community's and environment's benefit.