Objective: The degeneration of articular cartilage is part of the clinical syndrome of osteoarthritis (OA) and one of the most common causes of pain and disability in middle-aged and older people(1). However, the objective detection of an initial state of OA is still challenging. In order to categorize cartilage into states of OA, an algorithm is presented which offers objective categorization on the basis of two-photon laser-scanning microscopy (TPLSM) images.Methods: The algorithm is based on morphological characteristics of the images and results in a topographical visualization. This paper describes the algorithm and shows the result of a categorization of human cartilage samples.Results: The resulting map of the analysis of TPLSM images can be divided into areas which correspond to the grades of the Outerbridge-Categorization. The algorithm is able to differentiate the samples in coincidence with the macroscopic impression.Conclusion: The method is promising for early OA detection and categorization. In order to achieve a higher benefit for the physician the method must be transferred to an endoscopic setup for an application in surgery. (C) 2013 Osteoarthritis Research Society International. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A confocal imaging and image processing scheme is introduced to visualize and evaluate the spatial distribution of spectral information in tissue. The image data are recorded using a confocal laser-scanning microscope equipped with a detection unit that provides high spectral resolution. The processing scheme is based on spectral data, is less error-prone than intensity-based visualization and evaluation methods, and provides quantitative information on the composition of the sample. The method is tested and validated in the context of the development of dermal drug delivery systems, introducing a quantitative uptake indicator to compare the performances of different delivery systems is introduced. A drug penetration study was performed in vitro. The results show that the method is able to detect, visualize and measure spectral information in tissue. In the penetration study, uptake efficiencies of different experiment setups could be discriminated and quantitatively described. The developed uptake indicator is a step towards a quantitative assessment and, in a more general view apart from pharmaceutical research, provides valuable information on tissue composition. It can potentially be used for clinical in vitro and in vivo applications.

When confocal depth stacks are taken, the collected signal (normally the fluorescence signal), decays dependent of the depth of the confocal slice in the turbid medium. This decay is caused by scattering and absorption of the exciting light and of the fluorescence light. As the attenuation parameters, i.e. scattering and absorption coefficients, are normally unknown when observing a new sample, a method is proposed to compensate for the attenuation of the involved light by correcting the fluorescence signal using the attenuation behavior of the sample measured directly on the spot where the fluorescence stack is taken. The method works without any a priori knowledge about the optical properties of the sample. Using this self-reference technique, a confocal fluorescence depth stack can be created where the signal intensity is not dependent on the scattering and absorption caused intensity decay. The proposed method is tested on fluorescent beads embedded in scattering and absorbing hydrogel phantoms.

Fluorescent nanodiamonds (ND) provide advantageous properties as a fluorescent biomarker for in vitro and in vivo studies. The maximum fluorescence occurs around 700 nm, they do not show photobleaching or blinking and seem to be nontoxic. After a pretreatment with strong acid fluorescent ND can be functionalized and coupled to endotoxin. Endotoxin is a decay product of bacteria and causes strong immune reactions. Therefore endotoxin has to be removed for most applications. An effective removal procedure is membrane filtration. The endotoxin, coupled to fluorescent ND can be visualized by using confocal microscopy which allows the investigation of the separation mechanisms of the filtration process within the membranes.

We present a spectrally resolved confocal imaging approach to qualitatively asses the overall uptake and the penetration depth of fluorescent dyes into biological tissue. We use a confocal microscope with a spectral resolution of 5 nm to measure porcine skin tissue after performing a Franz-Diffusion experiment with a submicron emulsion enriched with the fluorescent dye Nile Red. The evaluation uses linear unmixing of the dye and the tissue autofluorescence spectra. The results are combined with a manual segmentation of the skin's epidermis and dermis layers to assess the penetration behavior additionally to the overall uptake. The diffusion experiments, performed for 3h and 24h, show a 3-fold increased dye uptake in the epidermis and dermis for the 24h samples. As the method is based on spectral information it does not face the problem of superimposed dye and tissue spectra and therefore is more precise compared to intensity based evaluation methods.

A 4D confocal microscopy (xyzλ) method for measuring the drug distribution in skin samples after a permeation study is investigated. This approach can be applied to compare different drug carrier systems in pharmaceutical research studies. For the development of this detection scheme phantom permeation studies and preliminary skin measurements are carried out. The phantom studies are used to detect the permeation depth and the localization of the external applied fluorescent dye naphthofluorescein that is used as a model agent. The skin study shows the feasibility of the method for real tissue. For the differentiation of tissue/phantom and the dye, spectral unmixing is performed using the spectral information detected by a confocal microscope. The results show that it is possible to identify and localize external dyes in the phantoms as well as in the skin samples.

A method to quantify fluorescent labels spatially resolved in scattering and absorbing samples is proposed and tested using a tissue phantom. The method works without any a priori knowledge about the optical properties of the sample. The scattering and absorption behavior of the sample is estimated by measuring reflectance from the sample simultaneously to the fluorescence. With this estimation, the attenuation of the fluorescence caused by scattering and absorption can be mathematically compensated. The method is planned to be used for evaluating skin penetrating drug carrier systems.

The aim of this project was to develop a skin phantom that resembles the epidermis including the lipid matrix of the stratum corneum and the dermis. The main intent was to achieve optical properties similar to skin tissue. Therefore, two compartments of the skin, dermis and epidermis, were examined regarding their optical properties. Based on these results, the skin phantom was designed using relevant skin components. The scattering coefficient was measured by using Reflectance-based Confocal Microscopy (RCM) and the fluorescence spectrum was detected via confocal laser-scanning microscopy (CLSM). Prospective, the skin phantom can be used to incorporate various fluorescing chemicals, such as fluorescent dyes and fluorescent-labeled drugs to perform calibration measurements in wide-field and laser-scanning microscopes to provide a basis for the quantification of skin penetration studies.

Skin penetration studies are an important part for the development of dermal drug carrier systems. As a novel approach a 7-tesla Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scanner was used to obtain information about the penetration of agents into the skin. The main advantage of this method is, that the properties of the skin does not influence the signals. Compared to optical assessments the MRI method is not limited to imaging depth. Furthermore, it is possible to analyze fat and water components of the skin separately. The aim of this work was to evaluate, if this method is a promising analysis tool for the visualization of the transport of substances across the skin. Gadobutrol (Gadovist®1.0), respresenting a coventional contrast agent in MRI, was used as a model drug for the visualization of the skin penetration. These first promising results showed that Gadobutrol, incorporated in an oil-in-water emulsion, could be detected across the skin tissue compared to an aqueous solution. After 24 hours, the pixel intensity value was increased about 4-fold compared to an untreated tissue.

High mobility group (HMG) proteins of the HMGB family are chromatin-associated proteins that as architectural factors are involved in the regulation of transcription and other DNA-dependent processes. HMGB proteins are generally considered nuclear proteins, although mammalian HMGB1 can also be detected in the cytoplasm and outside of cells. Plant HMGB proteins studied so far were found exclusively in the cell nucleus. Using immunofluorescence and fluorescence microscopy of HMGB proteins fused to the green fluorescent protein, we have examined the subcellular localization of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) HMGB2/3 and HMGB4 proteins, revealing that, in addition to a prominent nuclear localization, they can be detected also in the cytoplasm. The nucleocytoplasmic distribution appears to depend on the cell type. By time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, it was observed that the HMGB2 and HMGB4 proteins tagged with photoactivatable green fluorescent protein can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, while HMGB1 remains nuclear. The balance between the basic amino-terminal and the acidic carboxyl-terminal domains flanking the central HMG box DNA-binding domain critically influences the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of the HMGB proteins. Moreover, protein kinase CK2-mediated phosphorylation of the acidic tail modulates the intranuclear distribution of HMGB2. Collectively, our results show that, in contrast to other Arabidopsis HMGB proteins such as HMGB1 and HMGB5, the HMGB2/3 and HMGB4 proteins occur preferentially in the cell nucleus, but to various extents also in the cytoplasm.

High mobility group (HMG) proteins of the HMGB family are chromatin-associated proteins that as architectural factors are involved in the regulation of transcription and other DNA-dependent processes. HMGB proteins are generally considered nuclear proteins, although mammalian HMGB1 can also be detected in the cytoplasm and outside of cells. Plant HMGB proteins studied so far were found exclusively in the cell nucleus. Using immunofluorescence and fluorescence microscopy of HMGB proteins fused to the green fluorescent protein, we have examined the subcellular localization of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) HMGB2/3 and HMGB4 proteins, revealing that, in addition to a prominent nuclear localization, they can be detected also in the cytoplasm. The nucleocytoplasmic distribution appears to depend on the cell type. By time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, it was observed that the HMGB2 and HMGB4 proteins tagged with photoactivatable green fluorescent protein can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, while HMGB1 remains nuclear. The balance between the basic amino-terminal and the acidic carboxyl-terminal domains flanking the central HMG box DNA-binding domain critically influences the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of the HMGB proteins. Moreover, protein kinase CK2-mediated phosphorylation of the acidic tail modulates the intranuclear distribution of HMGB2. Collectively, our results show that, in contrast to other Arabidopsis HMGB proteins such as HMGB1 and HMGB5, the HMGB2/3 and HMGB4 proteins occur preferentially in the cell nucleus, but to various extents also in the cytoplasm.

We present a new detection method for multifocal two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) that allows a fast and easy access to spectrally resolved, three-dimensional images. In our setup eight fluorescent foci are directed through a descanned tube lens combination and a straight vision prism. This prism spectrally splits up the fluorescence beamlets, resulting in eight parallel spectral fluorescence lines. These lines are imaged onto a slit block array in front of a 8x8 multi anode PMT. Each PMT row detects different spectral characteristics from a special point in the sample whereas each column represents one focus. The eight exciting foci are scanned in the region of interest inside the sample by the two scanning mirrors in x- and y-direction. As a result of this imaging technique eight spectrally resolved images of slightly shifted sample regions are generated simultaneously and added up after the measurement, maintaining the spectral information. We present spectrally resolved 3D-data of various biological samples like pollen grains, tobacco cells and orange peel cells.