This study was conducted to describe indigenous Tswana sheep subpopulations based on morphometric traits and structural indices. Data on qualitative and quantitative traits were made on 1330 sheep of both sexes aged 1-3 years in southern and central AEZ. Fourteen structural indices were calculated from individual animal morphometric trait measurements. The data were analyzed using Statistical Analysis System. Tswana sheep subpopulations significantly (p<0.05) varied in coat colour type, head and back profiles while other traits did not differ. Most sheep have a plain coat colour pattern (64.4%), multicoloured (48.5%), with the dominant traits being white skin coats, short fat tails with a thin tip, straight heads and back, semi-pendulous ears and polled. There was sexual dimorphism across subpopulations with rams exhibiting higher morphometric values than ewes, except Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources flock. The National Agricultural Research and Development Institute flock had significantly (p<0.05) higher biometric traits than their counterparts. Structural indices indicated that Tswana sheep are well balanced (body ratio: 1.00), with good thoracic development (>2.1) and rectangular (proportionality: 100). This indicates fitness, good respiratory adaptation and inclination of Tswana sheep towards meat-type aptitude. This study provides information key information for designing genetic improvement and conservation programmes for the sustainable utilization of indigenous sheep.

Abstract. Pelotshweu K, Bolowe MA, Mosweu NP, Thutwa K, Kgwatalala PM. 2025. Prediction of live body weight from linear body measurements in sheep breeds of Botswana. Biodiversitas 26: 2696-2705. Phenotypic correlation data serve as a baseline to predict the outcomes of selection, which can in turn be used to inform appropriate conservation and breed improvement programs and strategies. Therefore, the study aimed to determine phenotypic correlations between body weight and morphometric traits and develop body weight prediction equations using morphometric traits for different sheep (Ovis aries) breeds in Botswana. Phenotypic correlation coefficients were determined from 595 sheep (Damara: 79, Dorper: 177, Karakul: 135, Meat-master: 156; Tswana: 48). Prediction equations were estimated from 94 sheep (Damara: 20, Dorper: 30, Karakul: 16, Meat-master: 28) using Stepwise regression procedures of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) 9.4. The highest positive significant (p<0.05) correlation coefficients were found between body weight and heart girth in both sexes across different sheep breeds. Males had higher correlation coefficients than females, except for Karakul males. Body length was more positively correlated (r: 0.81, 0.79, and 0.97) with body weight than height at withers (r: 0.78, 0.44, and 0.08) in Dorper, Meat-master, and Tswana male sheep, respectively. Morphometric traits like heart girth, body length, height at withers, neck length, cannon bone length, cannon bone circumference, and scrotal circumference in males were used for the prediction of body weight in Dorper, Damara, Meat-master, and Karakul sheep. Heart girth accounted for more variability in the prediction model for both sexes of all breeds, except for Damara males, where it was coupled with body length to predict their body weight. This indicates that body weight can be indirectly selected through selection for heart girth, height at withers, and body length. The study shows that heart girth, height at withers, and body length are the main traits that can be used in prediction equations of different sheep breeds to estimate body weight in the absence of weighing scales.

There is little information on the involvement of farmers as key stakeholders in the design of successful breeding programs that aim to improve indigenous Tswana sheep production. This study used farmers’ participatory approaches to characterise production systems, breeding practices and trait preferences among farmers raising Tswana sheep in Southern and Central agro-ecological zones (AEZ) of Botswana. A structured questionnaire was administered to 190 farmers. An index-based system was used to rank farmers’ preferred traits and data collected were analysed using SPSS. Demographic data showed that most Southern agro-ecology farmers were unmarried males, possessed secondary education and primarily relied on salaries/wages as household income source. In Central agro-ecology, most farmers were males, widowed, had primary education and livestock sales were the main source of income. Tswana sheep are either kept in extensive or semi-intensive production systems. Most Tswana sheep are kept in extensive production systems and there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the most preferred production systems across regions. Most farmers prefer using purebred and crossbred Tswana rams from their own flocks for breeding purposes, which mostly is done throughout the year and is uncontrolled. Farmers from Southern agro-ecology cull sheep with small body size and those in Central region cull sheep based on maladaptation. Keeping sheep for income generation through the sale of animals ranked first across AEZ. The highest-ranking trait preferred amongst Southern region farmers was for economic production traits (large-bodied animals) (0.311) whereas in Central region, preference for adaptation traits ranked highest (0.310). These results are key inputs to designing successful and sustainable community-based breeding programs for indigenous sheep in Botswana.

This study was conducted to (i) determine the association between live body weight (BW) and biometric traits, (ii) examine the effect of biometric traits on BW of Tswana sheep using MARS and CART data mining algorithms, (iii) compare the performance of the algorithms and, finally, select the best algorithm for predicting BW in Tswana sheep. BW and sixteen biometric traits were measured from 392 Tswana sheep (males = 85 and females = 307) aged three to four years. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to establish the relationship between BW and biometric traits. The goodness of fit criteria were computed to assess the predictive performance of the data mining algorithms and select the best-fit model for predicting BW. The results showed that BW had a positive and significant correlation with heart girth (HG) (r = 0.99); thus, HG was used as a sole predictor of BW. The goodness of fit results indicated that MARS has a higher predictive performance than the CART algorithm, suggesting that the MARS algorithm can be used to predict BW Tswana sheep. These findings are an important statistical tool for the selection and concurrent improvement of useful biometric traits in genetic improvement programs to improve BW in Tswana sheep.

The use of assisted reproductive technologies to improve productivity in livestock industry is becoming popular. The study aimed to determine the utilisation of artificial insemination (AI) and to find out the factors associated with adoption of AI by beef farmers in selected areas of Southern and Ghanzi districts. The data were collected through a survey where a questionnaire was administered to beef farmers. Random sampling was used to interview 54 beef farmers in Southern district and 40 beef farmers in Ghanzi district. The data were analysed using Frequency procedure in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The association between the nominal variables was tested using Pearson Chi-square in SPSS. There is significant (P < 0.05) association between AI utilization by beef farmers and these socio-economic factors; district where farming is done, age of the farmer, education level, occupation of the farmer, purpose of rearing cattle (commercial or subsistence) and land (communal or ranches). Gender of the farmer is not associated with AI utilization.

Abstract The study was conducted to determine the relationship between body weight and other morphological traits, and the practicality of using linear body measurements to estimate body weight. Correlation coefficients were determined from a total of 595 sheep (Damara: 79, Dorper: 177, Karakul: 135, Meat-master: 156 and Tswana: 48), while regression equations were estimated from a total of 94 sheep (Damara: 20, Dorper: 30, Karakul: 16, and Meat-master: 28) using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) 9.4. The highest, strong and positive correlation coefficients were found between body weight and heart girth in both sexes across the different sheep breeds, with males having high correlation coefficients than females. Body length in males across the breeds had a much higher correlation coefficient with body weight compared to height at withers. Linear body measurements like heart girth, body length, height at withers, neck length, cannon bone length, cannon bone circumference and scrotal circumference in males were used to estimate body weight of Dorper, Damara, Meat-master and Karakul sheep breeds. Heart girth accounted for most of the variability in the prediction models of all the breeds, irrespective of sex, except for Damara males. Heart girth and body length explained most of the variability in the model used to predict body weight of Damara males, which means these traits can be used as selection criteria for body weight. Addition of more independent variables increases the accuracy of the prediction equation.

The aim of this study was to describe the indigenous Tswana sheep production systems, their management and farmers’ preferred selection traits when selecting breeding rams in four southern districts of Botswana. A total of 105 households; Kgatleng (n = 30), Kweneng (n = 27), southern (n = 24) and south–east (n = 24) districts were interviewed using structured questionnaire. An index-based approach was used to rank farmers’ most preferred traits for their production systems. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The Chi-square test was used to assess the statistical significance among categorical variables. The results indicated that indigenous Tswana sheep are mainly kept by males, single people, aged between 51 and 60 years possessing primary and secondary education. Management practices across the districts include castration, health care and supplementation mostly during the dry season. Superior fitness traits of indigenous Tswana rams over exotic rams were considered more important when selecting breeding rams in Kgatleng, Kweneng and south–east while in the southern district, rams were mainly selected based on body size. Most farmers kept breeding rams while those who did not keep rams depended on communal rams for service. This information is important in designing successful breeding programs and strategies for the conservation and sustainable utilization of indigenous Tswana sheep genetic resources.

This study aimed to assess the status, population and population trend of Tswana pigs in three districts of Botswana. A survey was conducted for three consecutive years from 2018 to 2020 in three districts to establish the status of indigenous Tswana pigs in the country in terms of their population. The three districts were Kgatleng, Kweneng and South-East. These districts were purposely chosen because they are the ones which have a considerable number of indigenous Tswana pigs. A structured questionnaire was administered to 71 farmers in 2018, 50 farmers in 2019 and 71 farmers in 2020. The population of indigenous Tswana pigs declined over the three years of study. South-East district had the highest number of indigenous pigs and Kweneng district had the least number during the three years of study. Sows and gilts were more than boars. The average herd size ranged from 3.5 to 20 over the three years. According to risk status classification by FAO, the status of indigenous Tswana breed in the southern districts of Botswana is ‘endangered’ and the estimated population growth rate is less than one. There is a strong positive and significant difference between the total number of pigs and the number of female pigs. The regression analysis indicated a positive impact of adult female pig numbers on the total number of Tswana pigs.

Background and Aim: Bovine cysticercosis is defined as a foodborne parasitic zoonotic disease of cattle caused by the larval stage of the human tapeworm Taenia saginata. In Botswana, bovine cysticercosis has inflicted major economic consequences on the beef industry due to downgrading, condemnation, or treatment of infected carcasses. Thus, in this study, we aim to (1) estimate the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis in Botswana's southeastern districts, (2) describe the distribution of bovine cysticercosis through geospatial mapping, and (3) investigate the effect of seasonality on bovine cysticercosis occurrence. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted using abattoir records of cattle slaughtered from August 2015 to July 2016. In total, 13 licensed non-export abattoirs were selected for this study, wherein 26,827 cattle were slaughtered during this period. Detection of cysticerci from the carcass and offal was carried out by meat inspectors visually during meat inspection. Prevalence of bovine cysticercosis was calculated for the extension areas and veterinary districts for each month and form there used to establish its distribution and seasonality. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.0. Results: The prevalence of bovine cysticercosis in the southeastern districts of Botswana during this study period was determined to be 6.2%. The prevalence in the veterinary districts differed significantly at p<0.05. Seasonality did not have a significant (p=0.651) effect on the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis. Geospatially, areas with greater than 8% prevalence were mainly located in the southernmost part of the study area. Conclusion: The prevalence of bovine cysticercosis was 6.2% during the study period. No previous studies on cysticerci prevalence in the study area was conducted; thus, it was not possible to determine whether there has been an increase or decrease in terms of prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study can be used as a baseline for the prevalence of cysticerci in the study area.

Cytokines are immune response components important in innate immunity and inflammatory response. They are harnessed as part of local immunological responses by animals to combat local infections and/or infestations. This study investigated expression of four selected cytokine genes, namely, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), chemokine C-C ligand 2 (CCL2), chemokine C-C ligand 26 (CCL26) and interleukin 8 (IL-8), at tick attachment and control sites in a South African indigenous sheep breed the Namaqua Afrikaner (NA) and two commercial breeds, the Dorper and South African Mutton Merino (SAMM). The NA was previously shown to be more resistant to infestation by ticks than the two commercial breeds. NA ewes expressed IL-1β more at tick attachment sites compared to Dorpers. The NA breed was also more likely to upregulate the expression of the CCL2, CCL26 and IL-8 genes at tick attachment sites compared to control sites than the other breeds. The results of this study gave an indication that cytokines are involved in immune responses to tick challenge and laid a foundation for further studies under controlled challenge conditions.

This study aimed to phenotypically characterize indigenous Tswana sheep under its natural environment and develop prediction equations for body weight using linear body measurements in Kgatleng, Kweneng, Southern and South-East districts of Botswana. Multistage purposive sampling was used for selection of districts. Data on qualitative characters and quantitative measurements were made on 665 sheep stratified by dentition into four age categories (0PPI, 1PPI, 2PPI and ≥3PPI). Both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed using Statistical Analysis System. Most Tswana sheep were characterized by plain coat color pattern with white dominating and plain white colors, short-fat tails with a straight tip, horizontal ears, no horns and wattles. District, sex and age had a significant influence on body weight and most linear body measurements. The highest correlation between body weight and heart girth for both sexes indicate that heart girth explained more variation than other measurements thus is the best variable for predicting body weight in both sexes. The best predicted body weight model for males is y=-64.15+1.28x and y=-53.47+1.14x for females where x and y are heart girth and body weight, respectively. This study reveals existence of diversity of sheep genetic resources across districts, indicating their potential response to selection. Key words: Body weight, characterization, morphometric traits, Tswana sheep.

Indigenous animal genetic resources are vital in agriculture especially in the era of climate change because they are adapted to the harsh local conditions. Therefore, their conservation through utilisation is necessary. Indigenous Tswana pigs are one of the animal genetic resources that need to be protected from becoming extinct. The aim of this study was to determine the population of Tswana pigs, their production characteristics and management practices in the southern districts of Botswana. A survey was done in 15 villages in Kweneng, Kgatleng and South East districts of southern Botswana. A combination of purposive and convenience sampling methods was used to select villages and households where the survey was conducted. A questionnaire with closed- and opened-ended questions was administered to 71 indigenous pig farmers. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics procedure, frequency procedure and principal component analysis. The study established that indigenous Tswana pigs are mainly kept and managed by middle-aged and elderly women with lower level of education and no formal employment. These farmers keep Tswana pigs alongside other livestock species. The population of indigenous Tswana pigs in the surveyed districts is 620. Farmers keep indigenous pigs for cash and for home consumption. The pigs are kept in the backyard and fed kitchen leftovers and others are left to scavenge for feeds. Farmers do not put much effort in attending the health of the indigenous pigs; hence, their ignorance of the parasites and diseases affecting the pigs.

The indigenous Tswana pig is currently listed as an endangered animal genetic resource and if not conserved, might go extinct. The objective of this study was to assess the genetic diversity (genetic characterization) of the indigenous Tswana pig population. Blood samples were collected from 30 randomly selected Tswana pigs in Kgatleng and South-East districts of Botswana for the assessment of genetic diversity using a panel of 12 FAO-recommended microsatellite markers. All the microsatellite markers screened in indigenous Tswana pigs were polymorphic and the number of observed alleles per marker varied between 3 (SW2406) and 9 (SW225) with mean number of alleles per marker of 6.33. The observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.16 (SW2405) to 0.875 (SW2465) with average observed heterozygosity across all 12 loci of 0.647. The expected heterozygosity was lower than the observed heterozygosity and ranged between 0.143 (SW2405) and 0.776 (SO385) with mean expected heterozygosity across all loci of 0.603. The allelic diversity and levels of heterozygosity indicate high levels of genetic diversity in Tswana pig population. The within-locus inbreeding coefficient (Fis) ranged between -0.321(S0120) and 0.234 (SW35) with inbreeding coefficient of the entire population of -0.012 indicating that the Tswana pig population is relatively outbred. Key words: Genetic diversity, microsatellite markers, heterozygosity

Indigenous Namaqua Afrikaner (NA) sheep have been reported to be more resistant to tick infestation than the commercial Dorper and South African Mutton Merino (SAMM) breeds. The aim of this study was to compare cutaneous reactions to unfed tick larval extract (ULE) of Rhipicephalus evertsi in the three breeds to verify if such reactions are related to resistance/susceptibility to tick infestation. ULE was injected in the right ear skin of the animals and induced hypersensitivity reactions in all three breeds. The indigenous NA displayed stronger reactions, immediate and delayed, than the commercial breeds. These results suggest that cell-mediated immune responses are invoked to fight against tick infestation in the NA. It is suggested that the methods used could possibly be refined in future to allow routine evaluation of valuable animals without resorting to more invasive challenge-based strategies in selection candidates.

Phenotypic parameters for growth, carcass and meat quality traits were measured in the normal feathered and naked neck strains of Tswana chickens to compare the strains performance on these traits under improved management. Ninety-three chickens were used (56 normal and 37 naked neck chickens). Feed intake was recorded daily while body weight and feed utilization were measured fortnightly from hatching to 20 weeks of age. After 20 weeks, 60 chickens were randomly selected for slaughter and carcass traits (carcass and carcass parts weights) measured and yield calculated. Meat quality was evaluated from 40 carcasses. These results showed that males had significantly higher (2436.44 g and 2375.54 g for naked neck and normal chickens, respectively) body weights than females (1585.27 g and 1690.62 g for naked neck and normal chickens, respectively) at 20 weeks of age. There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in growth performance between the two strains. Although feed utilization of the strains did not differ significantly, naked neck males tended to have higher feed efficiency than the naked neck females and normal strain. In addition, naked neck males outperformed naked neck females and normal chickens in carcass traits. The sex and genotypes did not affect meat quality significantly. These results imply that both sexes of these strains can be kept for meat production.