Britz et al present an important contribution to the understanding of primary care capacity by identifying all Primary Care Physicians (PCPs) in one state and quantifying their patient panel sizes. Their findings, showing median panels between 1196 and 1290 patients, provide critical insight into how many individuals each PCP can realistically serve amid a national primary care shortage. This commentary explores emerging trends that may reshape how ideal panel size is defined in the future, particularly the increasing integration of non-physician providers, digital health platforms, and artificial intelligence (AI) tools. Technologies such as ambient dictation, automated order entry, and AI-driven patient messaging can reclaim valuable clinician time and help mitigate burnout, potentially allowing physicians to manage larger panels. Likewise, wearable sensors, virtual visits, and non-traditional care outlets such as retail clinics and urgent care centers offer additional opportunities to expand system-wide capacity. However, these efficiencies must be balanced against current capacity issues in primary care, including potential added monitoring workload, increasing complexity of patients, as well as currently over-burdened primary care practices due to administrative burden and high volumes of patient messaging. Future studies are needed to determine whether these innovations truly expand capacity or simply redistribute effort within the evolving ecosystem of primary care.

GOAL:The role of artificial intelligence (AI) continues to grow in healthcare. It is important to gain a deeper understanding of how patients and care providers perceive its use in patient care and whether they are satisfied with the AI experience. This study performed a scoping review of the published research on patient and physician satisfaction with AI used in healthcare delivery. METHODS:The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach guided the identification, filtering, and analysis of research published from 2003 to 2023 on patient and care provider satisfaction with AI. A standardized data abstraction form created in Microsoft Excel was used to record relevant information in the 45 articles that were selected for review. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:Most of the 45 empirical studies included in this study focused on patient satisfaction with AI. Almost half considered AI for treatment exclusively, mostly in hospital or remote settings. Moderate to high degrees of AI satisfaction were identified in 16 of 28 (57%) studies that contained a general AI satisfaction finding of some type. In the other 12 studies, satisfaction levels expressed were lower. Overall, higher satisfaction was seen with AI in diagnostic situations compared to treatment situations. Ninety percent of studies where AI was identified as effective in patient care also found high levels of AI satisfaction. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:Both physicians and patients appear receptive to the integration of AI into patient care, regardless of the type of AI used. This receptivity may encourage healthcare organizations to support AI in patient care. Healthcare organizations should identify the full range of drivers of patient and physician satisfaction with AI beyond whether the technology or tool improves clinical outcomes. Future research could analyze contextual factors that may impact AI satisfaction; effects related to age, type of patient care setting, and clinical situation; and an expansion of the types of AI examined.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Burnout among physicians who work in primary care is an important problem that impacts health care quality, local communities, and the public's health. It can degrade the quality of primary care services in an area and exacerbate workforce shortages. This study conducted a review of the published research on burnout among family physicians working in the United States.METHODS:We used a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-guided approach and several article databases to identify, filter, and analyze published research on US family physician burnout that uses data collected from 2015 onward.RESULTS:Thirty-three empirical studies were identified with findings that included US family physician burnout prevalence and/or associations between burnout and specific personal and contextual drivers. Mean family physician burnout prevalence across studies that measured it was 35%. Almost half of the studies classified one-third or more of their family physician samples as burned out. Physician gender (being female), age (being younger), and job/work-related factors (workload, time pressures) were the most commonly identified correlates of family physician burnout. The vast majority of studies were cross-sectional and used secondary data.CONCLUSIONS:The extant research literature on family physician burnout in the United States shows that burnout is currently a meaningful problem. Several important correlates of the problem can be identified, some of which managers and health care organizations can proactively address. Other correlates require managers and health care organizations also viewing family physicians in differentiated ways. The collective literature can be improved through a more consistent focus on similar burnout correlates across studies; inclusion of interventions aimed at lessening the effects of key burnout correlates; employment of more robust longitudinal and quasi-experimental research designs; and additional pandemic-era data collection on burnout.

Objective This scoping review explores patients’ experience with wearable technology. Its aims are to: (a) examine studies that contain empirical findings related to patients’ experience with wearables; (b) compare these findings within and across studies; and (c) identify areas in need of greater understanding. Methods A Preferred Reporting Items for Scoping Review (PRISMA) guided approach was followed. Four databases of peer-reviewed articles (CINAHL, EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Science) were searched for empirical articles involving patients’ experience of using wearable technology. A standardized data abstraction form recorded relevant information on the articles identified. Data analysis included frequency counts for all abstracted categories; and itemized (by study) findings related to patients’ wearable experience including satisfaction. Results Forty-six studies comprised the final review sample. The research literature examining patients’ wearable experience is characterized by variety in terms of sample sizes, medical situations and wearable devices examined, research settings, and geographic location. This literature supports a positive patient experience with wearables in terms of satisfaction and usability, although the evidence is mixed when it comes to comfort. The moderate to higher satisfaction, usability, and comfort findings across studies do not suggest any sort of pattern with respect to the type of wearable, medical situation, or location. Conclusions The review findings suggest that health care organizations should view wearable technology as a viable complement to traditional aspects of patient care. However, from a patient experience standpoint, there is still much to know and validate in this regard, especially as the technology continues to advance.

Background: Hospice care is an underused form of intervention at the end of life. The experiences of patients, families, and other caregivers are important to consider in thinking about how to encourage greater use of hospice care, through policies and advocacy that promote its benefits. Specifically, patient, family, and other caregiver satisfaction with hospice care is important to understand better. Methods: A PRISMA-guided review of the research on hospice care satisfaction and its correlates among patients, families, and other caregivers. Included in the review is research published over the time period 2000-2023 identifying a hospice care satisfaction finding. Results: Thirty-eight studies were included in the review. Key findings were: (a) higher levels of hospice care satisfaction among patients, families, and other caregivers; and (b) correlates of hospice care satisfaction falling into the categories of communication, comfort, and support. The published literature had fewer findings related to demographic correlates of satisfaction such as age or race/ethnicity and was lacking in comparative research examining satisfaction across different types of hospice care settings. Discussion: Extant research demonstrates a consistently higher level of hospice care satisfaction among patients, families, and other caregivers. This satisfaction appears related to specific aspects of care delivery that involve effective care coordination and communication; pain and symptom management; and emotional support. Strengthening future research involves testing additional interventions aimed at enhancing satisfaction; including more comparative research across hospice care settings; and more studies that include patients as the key respondents.

Background The COVID-19 pandemic is a profound change event for U.S. primary care physicians and their medical practices. Purpose We examined how a group of U.S. primary care physicians and their medical practices used resiliency-based strategies, tactics, and mindsets to navigate pandemic-related change over the time period early 2020 through mid-2021. Methodology A 15-month longitudinal qualitative study of the same 10 physicians interviewed a total of 42 times at four time intervals during the 2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic. Data were analyzed using a systematic coding approach consisting of first- and second-order code categories feeding into an overall interpretive framework of resiliency-based adaptations. Results Primary care physicians and their practices engaged in two main resiliency-based strategic adaptations during the pandemic. These adaptations were labeled “keeping the business afloat” and “keeping primary care relevant for patients.” Each consisted of different strategies and tactics that shared common features including proactiveness, innovativeness, and pragmatism. Specific resiliency-based mindsets were identified that helped physicians both initially engage in needed strategies and tactics while continuing to engage in them over time. Conclusions The results demonstrate how physicians use resiliency-based adaptation in response to profound change in their environments, defined by behavioral variety and motivated by self-interested and patient-centered imperatives. Practice Implications Physicians are proactive and possess multiple adaptive capabilities. Seen in this more positive light, health care organizations should focus on greater engagement of their physician-employees in implementing innovation in care delivery and managing change, that is, as responsible partners rather than resistors to meeting organizational imperatives.

Background Health care professionals face greater uncertainty in their careers as traditional jobs wither and new, organizationally controlled jobs proliferate, reducing economic security and professional autonomy. Purpose We apply psychological contract and self-efficacy theory to examine the career agency of early-career physicians. We ask the following: (a) What are the unfulfilled expectations and emotions experienced by young physicians at the training and early career stages? (b) What are the forms of career agency exhibited by young physicians in response to unfulfillment? Methodology We conducted a study on 48 U.K. early-career primary care physicians, known as general practitioners. The sample comprised both trainees as well as newly qualified physicians. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Results Physicians interpreted their early-career experiences based on predominantly ideological expectations around what it means to be a successful professional. However, the realities of practice resulted in highly emotional experiences of violation that were associated with a “reactive” agency and job behaviors that were more transactional and less relational. Conclusion This study identifies the expectations of early career professionals, which helps understand how and why psychological contract violations occur. It also expands the conceptualization of career agency from a positively framed aspect of professional behavior to one that includes haphazard and self-serving elements. Practice Implications Our study highlights several implications of the shifts in physician career agency for primary care practice. It discusses the potential effects of the purposeful self-interest among doctors on professional identity and power, as well as patient care.

INTRODUCTION:This study examined the attitudes and perceptions of family medicine educators with regards to COVID-19's impact on both career thinking and work intentions.METHODS:We surveyed 949 Family Medicine educators and practicing physicians as part of the 2021 Council of Academic Family Medicine's (CAFM) Educational Research Alliance (CERA) survey.RESULTS:Changes in thinking about their nonwork lives (P < .001, OR = 2.82), changes in life priorities (P < .001, OR = 2.07), along with recent changes to the educator job that are perceived as less enjoyable (P < .001, OR = 1.31), are associated with career thinking changes. Perception of being treated fairly (P = .002, OR = 0.83), changes in thinking about nonwork lives (P = .003, OR = 1.29), changes in life priorities (P < .001, OR = 1.65), and recent less enjoyable changes to the educator job (P < .001, OR = 1.26), are associated with an intent to reduce work hours. Perception of being treated fairly (P < .001, OR = 0.81), changes in life priorities (P < .001, OR = 1.31), recent work changes that are less enjoyable (P < .001, OR = 1.38), and workload increases (P = .02, OR = 0.87), are associated with increased thoughts of doing something different in 5 years. Older participants were more likely to intent to reduce hours (P < .001, OR = 1.05) and have increased thoughts of doing something different in 5 years (P < .001, OR = 1.04). Meanwhile, women were more likely to experience career thinking changes (P = .02, OR = 1.42).DISCUSSION:Our findings suggest that the career thinking and work intentions of family medicine educators have been greatly impacted by the pandemic. There may be consequences for how they think about and approach their careers and jobs in the future. Additional research is needed to determine what these actual consequences mean. In addition, employers should carefully assess these types of changes, identify which educator subgroups they may affect the most, and act accordingly, particularly in areas like recruitment and retention.

Background and Objectives: The use of telehealth has risen dramatically due to the Covid-19 pandemic and is expected to be a regular part of patient care moving forward. We know little currently about how satisfied physicians are with this type of patient care. The present systematic review examines physician satisfaction with telehealth, as physician acceptance remains vital to telehealth gaining wider and more permanent adoption. Methods: A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)–guided systematic review of empirical articles published between 2010 and 2020 that contain a finding examining physician satisfaction with using telehealth, using 4 article databases (PubMed, Web of Science, COCHRANE, and CINAHL), to identify relevant studies. A standardized data abstraction Excel sheet was used to extract relevant information from each of the included studies. Relevant study findings related to physician satisfaction with telehealth were reviewed for each of the 37 studies by the coauthors. Results: A total of 37 published studies were included in the review. Thirty-three of the 37 (89%) studies reviewed were classified as having findings showing moderate to high levels of physician satisfaction with telehealth. Just under 60% of the studies focused on physician satisfaction with providing telemedicine to patients (21/37). Twelve other studies focused on physician satisfaction with teleconsultations with other providers. Four studies examined physician satisfaction with both. The type of patient telemedicine or provider teleconsultation performed varied greatly across the 37 studies, with several different diagnoses or care situations included. Research designs used in the studies were less robust, with all studies using primary data for assessing physician satisfaction but only one study providing any type of multivariate analysis of physician satisfaction with telehealth. Conclusion: The results of this review support the observation that physicians across different specialties, geographic locations, practice locations, and care situations appear satisfied with engaging in telehealth for both patient care and consultations with other physicians. The research on telehealth should be enhanced, given how ubiquitous telehealth has become due to the Covid-19 pandemic. This enhancement should include larger physician sample sizes in studies of telehealth satisfaction; more research focused on telehealth in the primary care setting; and the types of virtual modalities that have become more commonplace for physicians to use due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

PURPOSE:Burnout (BO) is a serious phenomenon affecting US physicians. Female physicians, now accounting for a larger share of the workforce, are thought to experience higher levels of BO in some situations compared with their male counterparts. The current review aimed to systematically examine extant literature on physician BO as it relates especially to the female physician.METHODS:Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guided search of 4 databases yielding empirical studies with relevant findings regarding female physician BO, published during the time period 2010-2019.RESULTS:A total of 43 studies were included in the current review. Both male and female doctors have higher percentages of burned out doctors, with a third or more of each group indicating BO in each of the studies examined. These higher levels of BO remained regardless of where physicians worked, their clinical specialty, workloads, or age. However, the review supports the notion that for women doctors, there is generally a higher likelihood of experiencing BO compared with male doctors, particular with respect to the emotional exhaustion dimension of BO.CONCLUSIONS:BO is important for both female and male physicians; although women doctors may experience it to a greater degree. Women doctors will benefit from talent management approaches by health care organizations that recognize their greater tendency to BO compared with men. These approaches should be aimed at ameliorating the factors that give rise to feelings of emotional exhaustion in particular. Additional research is needed to better understand the full extent to which physician gender plays a role in BO.

Purpose Physicians work increasingly in larger organizations across different health care delivery systems. This systematic review examines the published empirical literature on organizational commitment among physicians within an international context. Design A systematic, PRISMA-guided review examining studies of organizational commitment among physicians published over time. Four article databases and a combination of appropriate search terms aided in identifying relevant articles. Findings Key findings include: (a) physicians, regardless of country, personal characteristics, type of job, or place of employment generally have lower levels of organizational commitment than other health care workers; (b) work- and job-related variables, particular age and job satisfaction, shape physicians’ organizational commitment; and (c) organizational commitment and the factors that shape it are similar across physicians working in different health systems. Review implications: Organizational commitment should remain central for researchers to study in most health systems internationally. Larger samples, longitudinal research, and greater use of theory are design improvements that will strengthen the extant research. The findings imply that if healthcare organizations create workplaces that make physicians feel in control, do not overwhelm them with work, provide a supportive culture, enhance their ability to give input, and keep them job satisfied, they may gain enhanced organizational commitment. Originality and value: To our knowledge, this is the first review of research examining organizational commitment among physicians. It is a resource for researchers and managers interested in learning more about aligning physician thinking and behavior with health care organizations.

The Covid-19 global pandemic changes how we study professional workers and their everyday lives. We normally think of professionals as leading stable, secure, and independent work lives. The pandemic has made life more challenging for them. Increased workloads and economic uncertainties; the stresses and demands caused by an abrupt juxta positioning of work with non-work life; greater risks and safety concerns at work; new ways of performing complex work; fewer resources at their disposal; additional public scrutiny for decisions made; and increased reliance for work success on clients and others on the professional team, challenge key theoretical assumptions and raise new questions to explore empirically. One general assumption worth revisiting post-pandemic is the idea of a profession as a homogenized collective possessing a unified value system, focused mainly on autonomy (Salvatore et al., 2018). A second big-picture assumption the pandemic moves front-and-centre is the separation by professionals of their work and non-work lives. This is related to another waning assumption that sees experts as conforming to a set physical location for client interactions that demarcates office from home, creating separate identities in the process. A post-pandemic world is one in which professional identities grow increasingly fluid and blurred. As Ashforth (2020) notes, organizations must now compete for professionals' attention as identity objects more than ever before, with that attention dependent on the organizational response to current events. A fourth assumption involves the notion that professionals seek relational excellence with clients and view it as critical to achieving successful work outcomes and personal satisfaction (Hoff, 2017). These assumptions have been central to the research questions we ask about professionals and their work. They have separated out such studies from those of less-skilled workers. The Covid-19 pandemic raises the spectre of a diverse array of values and psychological states scholars should study among individual professionals. These subjective phenomena shift the focus away from traditional macro-level dynamics like legitimacy, prestige, collective power, and professionalization. Instead, they focus on how professionals think about, internalize, and experience their work, uniquely and across different situations and contexts (Barley et al., 2017). The pandemic has forced adaptations that foment values and psychological states including self-preservation, resilience, optimism, courage, compassion, self-esteem, burnout, citizenship, and self-efficacy (Shanafelt et al., 2020). Such values and states have received less attention for professionals. In part this is due to entrenched beliefs that they are de facto in control over how they enact their role, highly intrinsically motivated, consistently satisfied with their work, and resistant to outside pressures on their work. The pandemic calls this understanding into question. Researchers should ask questions that seek to better understand the processual aspects and personal outcomes of the professional journey in a pandemic changed workplace. They should acknowledge the fluid, fragile nature of the post-pandemic professional psyche. How does a doctor or teacher perceive and navigate risk and failure in their jobs? What are the values and beliefs necessary for them to be satisfied, productive, confident, and happy in the professional role as it is constructed now? How do professionals build up, use, and potentially lose restorative values like compassion, courage, and optimism in various work situations? What situations produce burnout and cynicism or, alternatively, self-efficacy and empowerment in the role? A focus on professional health and well-being gains significance in this regard. Pursuing such questions requires gathering data from professionals on a range of values, attitudes, and beliefs; not only a select few. It requires idiographic methods like ethnography to understand the unique personal experiences of experts as they navigate complex work situations, getting at dynamics such as compassion fatigue and cynicism that may be more hidden from view with professionals (Hoff, 2017; Kellogg, 2019). It also means using theoretical ideas that touch upon phenomena like uncertainty and uncertainty reduction (Hogg and Belavadi, 2017). The professional role will be more difficult to perform post-pandemic. Those in that role are increasingly subject to negative outcomes like burnout, anxiety, and dissatisfaction. Thus, research should also examine how organizations that employ professionals act (or do not act) to preserve and promote professional well-being. Do employers view professional health and well-being as important? What organizational systems or structures, particularly ones created or advanced due to the pandemic, enable, hinder, or otherwise impact professional health and well-being? In what ways do professionals expect their employers to care for them? How do professional behaviours focused on dynamics like coping influence how organizations think about professional well-being (Muzio et al., 2013)? These types of questions decipher the evolving employer-employee relationship given new employment situations for professionals. The pandemic will shift, in some cases permanently, when, where, and how professional work is done. The obvious development here is the movement of professionals to working remotely, often from home. Among other things, this shift in work setting will provide them with opportunities to work non-traditional hours if they so wish. It will encourage many of them to think of their work and non-work lives in a more integrated way. It may lessen or strengthen professional commitment to their work and clients. It may focus some of them more on their home lives and roles such as parent at the expense of their professional role. It could reshape the concept of work-family balance. In all professional work, virtual service delivery is here to stay, at the least providing a complement to traditional forms of face-to-face service delivery. Because of the pandemic, more professionals adapted quickly to technology to interface with clients. In US medicine, for example, it took only a few months to spur telemedicine innovations that doctors had resisted for a decade. In education, professors and teachers went from in-person classroom teaching to remote learning in a couple of weeks. The combination of in-person with remote work will continue. This also means that more professionals will now spend meaningful hours working in semi-solitude from home offices, without direct in-person interaction with co-workers and clients. Professional work could grow more error-prone or lower quality, to the extent it is performed quicker and with less organizational oversight. Research is required that moves beyond traditional foci such as how professionals adapt to being organizational employees or managers, and identity formation and maintenance (Noordegraaf, 2015). These foci retain importance. But scholars must also now ask questions, for example, directed at the formation and maintenance of new psychological contracts between professional and employer (Baruch and Rousseau, 2018). What expectations will professionals now have of how their employers should treat them post-pandemic? What are key aspects of the new career 'ecosystem', as Baruch and Rousseau (2018) put it, that shape the implicit promises made by professional and employer toward each other in more socially and physically distant relationships? Will employers view their obligations towards professional employees differently now, and if so, how does this impact professionals' role behaviours and attitudes such as loyalty, motivation, and trust? Other post-pandemic topics ripe for study, and linked to changes in when, where, and how professional work is done include professional productivity in new job structures; the effects of greater work-home life integration on professional learning and career trajectories; the evolution of role socialization and networking processes for professionals; and shifts in the scope and substance of professional work, for example, does such work become more or less difficult to perform. Such questions will require researchers to apply ideas and concepts from social and organizational psychology that have not been used as much to study professionals. For example, work design theories that focus on what Grant and Parker(2009) refer to as relational aspects of work such as social support, and the proactive behaviours of workers resulting from aspects like job complexity, job crafting, and role adjustment. New concerns and questions also arise for researchers in considering how professional-client relationships may change post-pandemic. Professional-client relationships may become increasingly tenuous. They may grow more distant. This is due to factors like the professional's need to excel on the transactional rather than relational aspects of service delivery due to things like increased demand for services; physical distance between professional and client; increased reliance on impersonal and virtual modes of interaction; and shifting preferences among professionals and clients in what to expect from each other. These factors existed prior to the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic accelerates their growth and significance. Asking questions about how these factors impact professional-client relationships is important moving forward. For example, which factors effect (and in what ways) key features of effective professional service delivery such as trust, empathy, loyalty, and mutual respect? These relational features are assumed to be a self-propagating part of high quality professional work. How are both the professional and client experience shaped by these new interaction realities? Will professionals and clients define satisfaction with their relationship differently moving forward? How is professional discretion impacted by relationship change, due to less familiarity at times with the client, and thus, less tacit knowledge the professional can use for making decisions? Here again, idiographic methods are important as they capture how each party to the relationship participates in and sees it. Studies that collect primary data through direct observation and interviews can help researchers create updated montages of different aspects of the relationship experience, accounting for the evolving contexts of service delivery. An additional area of study here is how organizations potentially become a more sustaining source for this relationship, especially to the extent they provide key resources and support for professional service delivery. Transactional forms of service delivery that emphasize speed, efficiency, timely access, and standardization give the organization a significant role in influencing professional and client behaviours, because this is what organizations claim to be good at (Hoff, 2017). This raises important research questions focused on the use of lower-skilled labour and coordinating structures like teams for doing some professional work (Kellogg, 2019); and the role that organizational resources like information technology and artificial intelligence play in facilitating professional communication and decision making. Such questions inevitably ponder the future of professional-client relationships in various industries like health care, education, and finance, as the post-pandemic world creates greater reliance by individual experts on their employers for connecting with clients and making critical parts of their role work effectively.

Background The increased use of health care teams merits further investigation in terms of their impact on patient satisfaction. Patient satisfaction and patient experience generally have come front-and-center given trends within the health care industry around "patient-centered care" and "consumer engagement." Purpose This review examines research published between 2000 and 2017 that includes analysis of potential team-patient satisfaction linkages, taking the conceptual perspective that both the mere presence of health care teams and specific team features like cohesion may each be impactful. Methods A systematic, PRISMA-guided literature review across four databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Business Source Complete, and ScienceDirect) to examine potential team-patient satisfaction linkages in the existing team literature was performed. Results In-depth review of 24 relevant studies found the following: (a) The extant literature examining the team-patient satisfaction relationship currently suffers from limitations around study design, construct definition, and variable operationalization, which render less confidence overall in the body of work, and (b) despite the limitations, extant work does suggest that there may be instances where the presence of a health care team does favorably impact patient satisfaction. Practice Implications Future research should attend to several issues related to study design improvements, more precise operationalization and measurement of both teams and patient satisfaction, expansion of focus beyond patient satisfaction within the same study, and inclusion of more ambulatory care delivery settings in team-satisfaction research.

Academy of Management DiscoveriesVol. 7, No. 3 From the EditorsPresenting Context in an AMD Article: The Value for Illuminating a DiscoveryTimothy HoffTimothy HoffNortheastern University and University of OxfordPublished Online:29 Sep 2021https://doi.org/10.5465/amd.2021.0139AboutSectionsView articleView Full TextPDF/EPUB ToolsDownload CitationsAdd to favoritesTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail View articleREFERENCESAcademy of Management. n.d. Academy of Management Discoveries. Retrieved from https://aom.org/research/journals/discoveries Google ScholarBamberger, P. 2008. Beyond contextualization: Using context theories to narrow the micro-macro gap in management research [Editorial]. Academy of Management Journal, 51: 839–846.Link , Google ScholarBurawoy, M. 1979. Manufacturing consent: Changes in the labor process under monopoly capitalism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Google ScholarDane, E., & Rockmann, K. W. 2021. Listen up! Revitalizing our writing to stir our readers and supercharge our thinking. Academy of Management Discoveries, 7: 1–7. Google ScholarElsbach, K. D., & Bechky, B. A. 2018. How observers assess women who cry in professional work contexts. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4: 127–154.Link , Google ScholarGoodman, R., & Kaplan, S. 2019. Work–life balance as a household negotiation. Academy of Management Discoveries, 5: 465–486.Link , Google ScholarHoff, T., Pohl, H., & Bartfield, J. 2005. Implementing safety cultures in medicine: What we learn by watching physicians. In K. HenriksenJ. B. BattlesE. S. MarksD. I. Lewin (Eds.), Advances in patient safety: from research to implementation: vol. 1, Research findings: 15–38. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Google ScholarJohns, G. 2006. The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31: 386–408.Link , Google ScholarKunda, G. 2006. Engineering culture: Control and commitment in a high-tech corporation. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Google ScholarMartin, J. 1992. Cultures in organizations: Three perspectives. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Google ScholarUzunca, B., Rigtering, J. P. C., & Ozcan, P. 2018. Sharing and shaping: A cross-country comparison of how sharing economy firms shape their institutional environment to gain legitimacy. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4: 248–272.Link , Google ScholarVan Maanen, J. 1973. Observations on the making of policemen. Human Organization, 32: 407–418. Google ScholarWhitman, G., & Cooper, W. H. 2016. Decoupling rape. Academy of Management Discoveries, 2: 115–154. Google ScholarFiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Vol. 7, No. 3 Permissions Metrics in the past 12 months History Published online 29 September 2021 Published in print 1 September 2021 Information© Academy of Management DiscoveriesDownload PDF

Background Women are becoming doctors in greater numbers. Despite this, there is evidence of female doctors' continued differential treatment compared to their male counterparts. Purpose The aim of this study was to review systematically the extant literature on the gender-based pay gap in medicine across time, different medical specialties, and different countries of clinical practice. Methods Systematic search of three databases using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies needed to be empirical and contain either an unadjusted or adjusted gender-based finding related to pay. Results A total of 46 articles published since 2000 contained a gender-based finding related to physician pay. Thirty-two of these 46 articles presented either adjusted or unadjusted means comparisons (or both) comparing pay between male and female physicians. Eighteen of the 46 articles controlled for one or more variables in examining pay between the two groups. Across almost all studies, female doctors earn significantly less than men, often tens of thousands of dollars less annually, despite similar demographic and work-related profiles. This earnings gap is persistent across time, medical specialty, and country of practice. Practice Implications The gender-based pay gap is an ongoing crisis within medicine that must be addressed. From a practice perspective, women physicians may benefit from greater organizational awareness of potential workplace bias and the implementation of more supportive policies aimed at better equalizing compensation through greater support and transparency related to salary negotiations, promotional opportunities, and pay scales across various job titles.

Background Women are becoming doctors in greater numbers. Despite this, there is evidence of female doctors’ continued differential treatment compared to their male counterparts. Purpose The aim of this study was to review systematically the extant literature on the gender-based pay gap in medicine across time, different medical specialties, and different countries of clinical practice. Methods Systematic search of three databases using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies needed to be empirical and contain either an unadjusted or adjusted gender-based finding related to pay. Results A total of 46 articles published since 2000 contained a gender-based finding related to physician pay. Thirty-two of these 46 articles presented either adjusted or unadjusted means comparisons (or both) comparing pay between male and female physicians. Eighteen of the 46 articles controlled for one or more variables in examining pay between the two groups. Across almost all studies, female doctors earn significantly less than men, often tens of thousands of dollars less annually, despite similar demographic and work-related profiles. This earnings gap is persistent across time, medical specialty, and country of practice. Practice Implications The gender-based pay gap is an ongoing crisis within medicine that must be addressed. From a practice perspective, women physicians may benefit from greater organizational awareness of potential workplace bias and the implementation of more supportive policies aimed at better equalizing compensation through greater support and transparency related to salary negotiations, promotional opportunities, and pay scales across various job titles.

Implementation of retail health consumer tactics in primary care poses challenges for primary care doctors that must be recognized and addressed.