Exotic annual weeds have invaded and transformed western North American ecosystems. Restoration of these invaded sites has been met with low levels of success. Pre-emergent herbicides can effectively control these annual weeds, but this treatment does not allow for the concurrent seeding of desired species. Seeding within a deep U-shaped furrow following herbicide application may be a method to reduce pre- emergent herbicide effects by transferring the herbicide away from the seed at the time of planting. We investigated this method by spraying plots with or without the pre-emergent herbicide imazapic, then planting with or without a deep furrow. Treatments (i.e., spraying and furrowing) were applied using mechanical equipment within a single pass at six sites. In plots without imazapic, deep furrows generally had higher plant density and more above-ground biomass of seeded species than those in plots without furrows. Similarly, in plots with imazapic, deep furrows generally improved measured plant metrics for the seeded species. For example, plant density in deep furrows was 62-97% higher than that with non- furrow treatments in plots with imazapic and 41-89% higher in plots without imazapic. Deep furrows also decreased exotic annual weeds in the first year after planting, but weed reduction was generally more effective when this treatment was applied with imazapic. Overall, this research provides evidence that deep furrows alone can improve seeding success in most instances. Nevertheless, combining herbicide application with deep furrows in a one-pass system should be considered in areas with high weed cover. Due to the substantial soil disturbance caused by deep furrows, this method should be selectively applied, such as constraining the treatment to substantially degraded areas. (c) 2024 The Society for Range Management. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.

Past research has documented livestock grazing patterns and dynamics across pastoral landscapes. We used spatial locations of domestic range sheep (Ovis aries) obtained from Global Positioning System collars to study habitat selection on summer mountain habitat North of Scofield Reservoir Utah, United States. Data were collected between the months of July to September 2020. We developed a resource selection function to determine the influence of slope, distance to water, aspect, ruggedness, elevation, and vegetation types on habitat selection by sheep while grazing on summer mountain habitat. We found sheep selected for sites closer to water, with more gentle terrain, higher in elevation, and north-facing slopes. Vegetation types were less predictive, ostensibly due to the lack of species composition information in available geographic information system layers and the possibility of sheep being herded to avoid areas of overuse. Although it is often assumed that sheep use slopes more than their heavier and larger cattle counterparts, overall they tended to avoid steep slopes compared with all other predictor variables. This information on selection for higher elevations and avoidance of steep slopes can be used to improve livestock management practices including flock management that increases sheep foraging patterns and energy efficiency.

Gut -associated microbes (‘gut microbiota’) impact the nutrition of their hosts, especially in ruminants and pseudoruminants that consume high-cellulose diets. Examples include the pseudoruminant alpaca. To better understand how body site and diet influence the alpaca microbiota, we performed three 16S rRNA gene surveys. First, we surveyed the compartment 1 (C1), duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, and large intestine (LI) of alpacas fed a grass hay (GH; tall fescue) or alfalfa hay (AH) diet for 30 days. Second, we performed a C1 survey of alpacas fed a series of 2-week mixed grass hay (MGH) diets supplemented with ∼25% dry weight barley, quinoa, amaranth, or soybean meal. Third, we examined the microbial differences of alpacas with normal versus poor body condition. Samples from GH- and AH-fed alpacas grouped by diet and body site but none of the four supplements significantly altered C1 microbiota composition, relative to each other, and none of the OTUs were differentially abundant between alpacas with normal versus poor body conditions. Taken together, the findings of a diet- and body-site specific alpaca microbiota are consistent with previous findings in ruminants and other mammals, but we provide no evidence to link changes in alpaca body condition with variation in microbiota relative abundance or identity.

The purpose of this study is to identify the effects of a grass hay diet (GH) and an alfalfa hay diet (AH) on the digestive microbiome of the alpaca. Ten adult male alpacas were randomly selected for the study and divided into two groups; each group was fed a different diet (GH or AH) for thirty days. Both groups were fed once daily ad libitum. At the end of the feeding period, digesta samples were taken from the first stomach compartment (C1), duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, and large intestine of each alpaca. Bacterial DNA was isolated from each sample and sequenced to identify operational taxonomic units, or bacterial taxa. All data were analyzed using QIIME software. Comparisons of the microbial composition of samples from grass-fed and alfalfa-fed alpacas at each digestive tract sample site showed that the microbiome at any single body site differed with diet (P < 0.05). Among the differences noted in the microbiomes of alpacas fed AH include a shift toward a higher proportion of phylum Euryarchaeota and a lower proportion of phylum Actinobacteria in the duodenum, ileum, and jejunum; and a higher proportion of phylum Euryarchaeota with a lower proportion of phylum Bacteroidetes in the cecum and large intestine. Analyses of the microbial composition of each body site revealed the presence of three different microbiomes per diet treatment group (P < 0.05); that of C1, the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), and the distal intestine (cecum and large intestine). The predominant phyla were Firmicutes (all sites), Bacteroidetes (C1, cecum, and large intestine), Actinobacteria (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), and Euryarchaeota (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum). These data demonstrate that, in alpacas, forage type does affect the predominant microbes and though taxa are similar between tract sites, there are shifts in the populations.

Summary This study was conducted to determine the compartment 1 (C1) characteristics of alpacas (fistulated male, 7 ± 1.5 years old, 61 ± 5 kg BW ) fed grass hay ( GH ) supplemented with amaranth ( AM ), quinoa (Q) and barley (B) grains. Alpacas were provided water ad libitum while housed in metabolism crates. The GH and GH plus treatments were fed at 0700 every day. Treatment periods were for 14 days in which GH or GH plus one of the grain treatments were randomly allocated. On day 14, volatile fatty acids ( VFA ), pH and ammonia nitrogen ( NH 3 ‐N) were determined at 1, 3, 6, 10, 14, 18 and 24 h post‐feeding. C1 degradation of each feed component was also determined with the alpacas being fed GH only and the samples incubated for 0, 2, 4, 8, 14, 24, 48 and 72 h. Dry matter ( DM ), neutral detergent fibre ( NDF ) and crude protein ( CP ) were determined and were divided into three categories: a = immediately soluble; b = the non‐soluble but degradable; and u = non‐degradable/unavailable, potential extent of degradation ( PE ), degradation rate ( c ) and effective degradation ( ED ). C1 passage rate was determined using acid detergent insoluble ash as a marker and was calculated to be 5.5%∙h‐1. Total DM intake was highest (p < 0.05) for B and resulted in a higher (p < 0.05) CP intake. GH and AM were different in mean pH (6.81 and 6.66, respectively). B NH 3 ‐N was greater (p < 0.05) than the other treatments. Total VFA was greatest (p < 0.05) for AM , with the greatest composition differences being a shift form acetate percentage to butyrate. DM , NDF and CP degradation was different across the treatments, where PE and ED were higher (p < 0.05) for the grain treatments. The pseudo‐grains AM and Q had similar C1 degradation characteristics to B.

ABSTRACTAnimal models have historically provided an appropriate benchmark for understanding human pathology, treatment, and healing, but few animals are known to naturally develop intervertebral disc degeneration. The study of degenerative disc disease and its treatment would greatly benefit from a more comprehensive, and comparable animal model. Alpacas have recently been presented as a potential large animal model of intervertebral disc degeneration due to similarities in spinal posture, disc size, biomechanical flexibility, and natural disc pathology. This research further investigated alpacas by determining the prevalence of intervertebral disc degeneration among an aging alpaca population. Twenty healthy female alpacas comprised two age subgroups (5 young: 2–6 years; and 15 older: 10+ years) and were rated according to the Pfirrmann‐grade for degeneration of the cervical intervertebral discs. Incidence rates of degeneration showed strong correlations with age and spinal level: younger alpacas were nearly immune to developing disc degeneration, and in older animals, disc degeneration had an increased incidence rate and severity at lower cervical levels. Advanced disc degeneration was present in at least one of the cervical intervertebral discs of 47% of the older alpacas, and it was most common at the two lowest cervical intervertebral discs. The prevalence of intervertebral disc degeneration encourages further investigation and application of the lower cervical spine of alpacas and similar camelids as a large animal model of intervertebral disc degeneration. © 2015 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 33:1776–1783, 2015.

Serum and urine analytes were measured in 4 healthy adult llama and alpaca geldings housed in metabolism crates and fed three diets consisting of alfalfa (AH), barley (BH) or grass (GH) hay and water ad libitum. This comparative study was conducted to determine if differences exist in serum metabolites and urinary indices in llamas and alpacas consuming the same forages of differing protein and carbohydrate quality. Daily feed intake was determined and concurrent serum and urine samples were obtained at 4-hr intervals on d13 and d14 for analysis of electrolytes, urea N, and creatinine. AH was consumed more than BH or GH by both species, but llamas consumed more forage on both a body weight (BW) and metabolic BW (MBW, kg .75 ) basis. Serum electrolytes were similarly affected by diet between species, indicating that renal homeostatic mechanisms were functional and analogous in llamas and alpacas. Serum and urine urea N were affected by forage (P<0.05). Urine volume was highest for both camelid species when consuming AH (P<0.05). Mean urine electrolyte excretion only differed by diet. Dissimilarities between these species was evidenced by differences in renal excretion of urea N and differences in urine volume on a MBW (kg .75 ) basis.

Eight male llamas (190±21.2 kg BW; 3 yrs old) were housed in metabolism crates. The diet treatments fed were barley hay (B), barley hay plus 20% quinoa straw (BQ), and barley hay plus 20% alfalfa hay (BA). The treatments were fed in random order, once daily with water provided ad libitum. Treatment periods were 14 d, with d 1 to 7 for diet adjustment and d 8 to 14 for N data collection. Blood samples were collected on d 14 to determine plasma metabolite concentrations. Dry matter intake was not different between the treatments 824, 1247 and 1196 g/d for B, BA and BQ. Nitrogen intake was 8.01, 21.44 and 13.42 g/d (P<0.05) for B, BA and BQ, respectively. Fecal N was highest for BA (6.41 g/d), but was only different from B (3.97 g/d; P<0.05). Urine N excretion as a percent of total was lowest for BQ (35.7%) and highest for B (60.8%; P<0.05). Nitrogen retained was -2.9, 9.7 and 4.9 g/d for B, BA and BQ (P<0.05). Dry matter digestibility was not different between treatments (63 to 66%), while N digestibility was different (P<0.05) across all three treatments; 47, 70 and 59% for B, BA and BQ. Plasma glucose NEFA, triglycerides, total plasma and creatinine were not different across treatments. These data demonstrate that feeding quinoa straw is a good supplement for camelids to increasing CP intake in-place of higher quality forage supplements, like alfalfa, that can be used for other higher producing livestock like dairy cows.

The purpose of this study was to determine the diurnal composition and concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and to determine VFA composition and concentration differences between stomach compartment 1 (C1) and caecum of alpacas fed grass and alfalfa hay. The study was divided into two experiments. In Experiment 1 (EXP 1), 10 male alpacas (3+ years old, 65 kg BW) were divided into two groups, housed in drylot pens, provided ad libitum water and fed alfalfa (AH) or grass hay (GH) for 30 days. The alpacas were slaughtered and the digestive tract collected, divided into sub-tract sections, weighed and digesta sampled for pH, dry matter (DM) and NDF. Volatile fatty acid composition and concentration were determined on C1 and caecal material. Four adult male (3+ years old, 60 kg BW), C1 fistulated alpacas were housed in metabolism crates and divided into two forage groups for Experiment 2 (EXP 2). Alpacas were fed the forages as in EXP 1. Diurnal C1 VFA samples were drawn at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 24 h post-feeding. There were no differences between forages for tract weight, C1 and caecum digesta DM or NDF. Differences were noted (p < 0.05) for pH between forages and sub-tract site. Volatile fatty acids concentrations were different (p < 0.05) for forage and site, and total VFA was higher for AH than GH (110.6 and 79.1 mm) and C1 than caecum (40.7 and 27.6 mm). Proportion of VFA was significant (p < 0.05) for forage and site, C1 acetate highest for GH (84.8 vs. 74.0 mm) and caecum acetate 83.7 and 76.2 mm for GH and AH respectively. These data demonstrate the level of VFA produced in C1 and the caecum of alpacas and the diurnal VFA patterns. Composition of VFA is similar to other ruminant species.

This study determined the effects of supplementing a low quality (straw) diet with forage kochia (Kochia prostrata) on the nutritional status of alpacas (Lama pacos). Two experiments were conducted with this objective. The first experiment (Exp A), 20 adult male alpacas were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatment diets, including 100% straw, straw plus 20%, 40% and 60% forage kochia, or straw plus 15% alfalfa. Each alpaca received a 2-week all-straw diet before we placed each in a metabolism crate with the treatment diet for 2 weeks (1 week acclimation period). Feed, orts, feces, and urine were measured daily and samples taken for analysis. Blood was collected every 30 min for 6 h at the end of treatment period and analyzed. In the second experiment (Exp B), 25 adult, male alpacas were assigned to 5 treatment groups. All animals received 6 weeks of an all-straw diet before 15 days of the same 5 treatments previously described. Data were collected on weights, feed given and refused and blood drawn twice per day on days 1-7, 9, 11, 13, and 15. Blood serum was analyzed for electrolytes (Na, K, and Cl) and metabolites (glucose, urea-N, and creatinine). In Exp A, the dry matter digestibility significantly increased across the treatments indicating that forage kochia was more digestible than straw. The data showed a significant increase in N intake with an increasing amount of forage kochia as well as a significant increase in N digestibility, but not enough to compensate for the period of low quality feed intake. The high urine output and high BUN values indicate that N was still being mobilized from muscle catabolism in order to compensate for the lack of nutrition. In Exp B, there were no significant differences due to diet alone. Day showed significance with respect to creatinine. Creatinine showed a significant decrease over time particularly in the diets with greater supplementation suggesting that with a longer treatment period, differences among diets may have been significant.

The purpose of this study was to determine the diurnal pH variation of the first compartment stomach (C1) of alpacas (vicugna pacos) fed grass hay (GH) or alfalfa hay (AH) and initial addition of grain supplements; oats (O), corn (C) or corn/oats/barley (COB) and to determine the effects of initial inclusion of corn to GH at levels of 0, 35, 50 and 70% of dry matter intake on C1 pH. Two experiments were conducted with four male (+3 yrs, 65 kg BW) alpaca fitted with C1 fistula. Alpaca were housed in metabolism crates and fed ad libitum hay and water. Experiment 1 treatments (TRT) included supplementation of 454 g of oats (O), ground corn (C), corn/oats/barley/molasses (COB) to AH (AO, AC, ACOB) and GH (GO, GC, GCOB). Two alpacas were acclimated to AH and the other two to GH. Each grain TRT was randomly administered followed by a 30 d acclimation period to the other forage and random administration of each grain. A pH probe was fitted through the fistula and positioned at the anterior, ventral portion of C1. Treatment periods included d1 to d7 diurnal pH collection of AH or GH, d8-10, d15-17 and d22-24 for grain TRT. Dry matter intake (DMI) was 1415, 1146, 1142 and 1192g for AH, AC, AO and ACOB; and 1331, 1206, 1207, and 1260 for GH, GC, GO and GCOB. AH was different from AH+grain TRT (P<0.05). Overall pH was 6.87, 6.78, 6.78 and 6.56 for AH, AC, AO and ACOB; and 6.95, 6.76, 6.89 and 6.83 for GH, GC, GO and GCOB (P<0.05). TRT and Time were significant (P<0.05). For EXP 2 GH was supplemented with 0 (G0C), 454g (G1C), 731g (G2C) and 908g (G3C) of corn. DMI was not affected. Overall pH decreased from 7.27 to 7.08 for G0C to G3C (P<0.05). Diurnal pH was significant for TRT (P<0.05), but not Time. Initial or abrupt feeding of grains to alpacas does elicit a pH response, but not to the extent of other true ruminants. This may be attributed to the buffering capacity of the C1, but further research is needed.

This study evaluated the effects of forage quality on blood metabolites and nitrogen balance in mature, intact male llamas (n = 4, 36 +/- 4.4 months, 87 +/- 17 kg) at high altitude (4267 m Letanias, Bolivia). Llamas were randomly fed barley hay (B), 80% barley/20% alfalfa hay (BA) and fresh cut grass pasture (P). Animals were housed in metabolism crates and diets were fed for a 7-day adjustment period followed by a 5-day collection period. Feed, feed refusal, feces and urine were collected, dried and N content determined by combustion analysis. Venous blood samples were collected on day 12 at 30 min intervals over a 6 h period. Plasma was harvested and analyzed for electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, Ca, Ca2+, P, Mg) and metabolites (glucose, NEFA, urea N, creatinine, albumin, total protein (TPP), osmolality (Osm)). Plasma electrolytes (Na, K, Mg, P, Cl) and metabolites (glucose, Osm, albumin, creatinine, TPP) were unaffected by forage treatment. Dry matter digestibility was greater for the B and BA than P forage, and N digestibility was significantly higher for BA than either the B or P forages. Nitrogen balance varied significantly between diets. N intake was significantly different between each diet (P < 0.0001), with B having the least N (7.1 g/day), followed by P (14.4 g/day) and BA (19.0 g/day), which provided the most N. Urine N excretion was similar between P (7.7 g/day) and BA (10.6 g/day), similar between P (7.7 g/day) and B (6.2 g/day), but was different (P < 0.04) between B (6.2 g/day) and BA (10.6 g/day). Fecal N excretion was similar between BA (7.4 g/day) and P (8.9 g/day). Both of these treatments produced significantly higher quantities of fecal N than B (4.1 g/day; P < 0.0004). Nitrogen excretion followed the same trend as N intake. Total N excretion was highest in BA followed by P and B forages. Llamas were in negative N balance on the B and P diets. Llamas had an estimated daily maintenance requirement value of 0.58 g crude N/W-0.75 and a daily maintenance requirement of 106.2 g CP/day. Mineral intake varied significantly between diets. Overall, pasture provided higher amounts of minerals than the barley forages, except for copper, phosphorus and zinc. These data demonstrate the effects of feeding forages of varying quality on whole-body N utilization, and trends in blood metabolite and electrolyte patterns in llamas at altitude. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

To determine the effect of barley diets on digestibility, nitrogen balance, and blood metabolites, mature gelded llamas and alpacas (n=8; 4 llamas, 36±4 months, 90±10.7kg; 4 alpacas, 24–36 months, 50±4kg) were randomly fed 100% barley (B) and 20% alfalfa/80% barley (BA) hay. Animals were housed in metabolism crates and diets were fed for a 7 days adjustment period followed by a 5 days collection period. Feed, feed refusal, feces and urine were collected, dried and N content determined by combustion analysis. Blood samples were collected on day 12 at 30min intervals over a 6h period. Plasma was harvested and analyzed for electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, Ca, Ca2+, P, Mg), metabolites glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), urea N, creatinine, albumin, total protein (TPP), osmolality (Osm). Plasma glucose, urea N, albumin, osmolality, electrolyte and metabolite levels were similar between species, and were unaffected by diet. On a metabolic weight basis, only diet was significant for N intake, urinary and fecal N, and total N excreted. Dry matter intake was not significantly different; however, BA consumption was greater than B, (B) 1272g N/day and (BA) 1636g N/day for llamas, and for alpacas (B) 835g N/day and (BA) 1034g N/day, respectively. Nitrogen intake followed the same pattern, (B) 21.4g N/day and (BA) 33.9g N/day, respectively for llamas, and (B) 13.6g N/day and (BA) 20.6g N/day, respectively for alpacas (diet, P<0.002). Diet affects were significant for urine N excretion (P<0.02), (B) 11.2g/day and (BA) 18.2g/day for llamas, and (B) 6.8 and (BA) 10.8g N/day for alpacas. Fecal N excretion was different for diet (P<0.03), with fecal excreted N of 9.0g N/day and 11.9g N/day for B and BA in llamas, and 5.9g N/day and 9.1g N/day for B and BA respectively in for alpacas, respectively. Nitrogen retention, DM digestibility and N digestibility were unaffected by diet or species. However, the llamas in this study displayed an increase in nitrogen intake of 64.6% between the B and BA diets with a 381% increase in N retention. Alpacas increased their N intake by 57.4% when they consumed the BA forage, which only increased N retention by 22.2%. These species differences indicate that alpacas have a lower N requirement to meet metabolic needs than llamas, which are likely related to the smaller body size of the alpaca. When examining the biological value of N from the respective diets, alpacas and llamas had a value of 56.2% when consuming barley. The BA diet had a higher biological value of 65.0% in llamas compared to 57.4% in alpacas. Therefore, on the basis of this study, extrapolations between llamas and alpacas with respect to nitrogen requirement and balance are not valid.

We use chronologies of stable isotopes measured from elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) hair to determine migration patterns and seasonal diet changes in elephants in and near Samburu National Reserve in northern Kenya. Stable carbon isotopes record diet changes, principally enabling differentiation between browse and tropical grasses, which use the C 3 and C 4 photosynthetic pathways, respectively; stable nitrogen isotopes record regional patterns related to aridity, offering insight into localized ranging behavior. Isotopically identified range shifts were corroborated by global positioning system radio tracking data of the studied individuals. Comparison of the stable isotope record in the hair of one migrant individual with that of a resident population shows important differences in feeding and ranging behavior over time. Our analysis indicates that differences are the result of excursions into mesic environments coupled with intermittent crop raiding by the migrant individual. Variation in diet, quantified by using stable isotopes, can offer insight into diet-related wildlife behavior.

Stable carbon isotope analysis of animal liver and muscle has become a widespread tool for investigating dietary ecology. Nonetheless, stable carbon isotope turnover of these tissues has not been studied in large mammals except with isotopically labelled tracer methodologies, which do not produce carbon half-lives analogous to those derived from naturalistic diet-switch experiments. To address this gap, we studied turnover of carbon isotopes in the liver, muscle, and breath CO2 of alpacas (Lama pacos) by switching them from a C3 grass diet to an isonitrogenous C4 grass diet. Breath samples as well as liver and muscle biopsies were collected and analyzed for up to 72 days to monitor the incorporation of the C4-derived carbon. The data suggest half-lives of 2.8, 37.3, and 178.7 days for alpaca breath CO2, liver, and muscle, respectively. Alpaca liver and muscle carbon half-lives are about 6 times longer than those of gerbils, which is about what would be expected given their size. In contrast, breath CO2 turnover does not scale readily with body mass. We also note that the breath CO2 and liver data are better described using a multiple-pool exponential decay model than a single-pool model.

Mammalian teeth are invaluable archives of ancient seasonality because they record along their growth axes an isotopic record of temporal change in environment, plant diet, and animal behavior. A major problem with the intra-tooth method is that intra-tooth isotope profiles can be extremely time-averaged compared to the actual pattern of isotopic variation experienced by the animal during tooth formation. This time-averaging is a result of the temporal and spatial characteristics of amelogenesis (tooth enamel formation), and also results from laboratory sampling. This paper develops and evaluates an inverse method for reconstructing original input signals from time-averaged intra-tooth isotope profiles. The method requires that the temporal and spatial patterns of amelogenesis are known for the specific tooth and uses a minimum length solution of the linear system Am = d, where d is the measured isotopic profile, A is a matrix describing temporal and spatial averaging during amelogenesis and sampling, and m is the input vector that is sought. Accuracy is dependent on several factors, including the total measurement error and the isotopic structure of the measured profile. The method is shown to accurately reconstruct known input signals for synthetic tooth enamel profiles and the known input signal for a rabbit that underwent controlled dietary changes. Application to carbon isotope profiles of modern hippopotamus canines reveals detailed dietary histories that are not apparent from the measured data alone. Inverse methods show promise as an effective means of dealing with the time-averaging problem in studies of intra-tooth isotopic variation.

In African savannas, browse-based resources (@3 plants) are isotopically distinct from grasses (@4 plants). The carbon isotopic composition of the basic plant diet is recorded in animal tissues. Mammal faeces are a readily accessible, non-invasive, sample material for temporally resolved dietary reconstructions. Faeces, however, include both undigested plant matter and waste, hence accuracy of dietary calculations could potentially be compromised by shifts in plant isotopic values related to seasonal or spatial differences, or by variability in the isotopic differences between faeces and diet. A controlled feeding study of four ungulate species showed a small, consistent difference between diet and faeces of-0.9 o, irrespective of whether the diet was @3 or C4-based. Results from faeces oftaxa known to be pure grazers, pure browsers, and mixed-feeders from the Kruger National Park were entirely consistent with their diets, but the accuracy of dietary reconstructions is enhanced with data from local plant communities.