Anthocorids, commonly called as minute pirate bugs or flower bugs, belong to the order Hemiptera, super family Cimicoidea, and family Anthocoridae. Globally, 500–600 species of anthocorids have been recorded, but anthocorid diversity has not been studied in several geographical regions. Majority of them are predaceous or zoo-phytophagous, and a few are exclusively phytophagous or myrmecophilous. They are important biocontrol agents as predators and both the adult and nymphal stages of a majority of species prey upon eggs and neonates of lepidopteran pests and all stages of sucking pests, viz., thrips, mites and mealybugs. Many species of anthocorid predators are recorded as important indigenous predators causing significant mortality of some of the notorious pests; however, they are not present in sufficient numbers to control/manage the pests. Hence, attempts have been made by biocontrol researchers and commercial units to mass rear and field release anthocorid predators, especially for the management of polyhouse pests. If this group of predators has to be documented, conserved or utilized effectively as biocontrol agents globally, extensive exploratory surveys have to be carried out in unexplored geographical regions and in-depth research should go into the ecological aspects of Anthocoridae. In this chapter, we attemptto compile information on the Anthocoridae family, with focus on the Indian species, and identify the research gaps as a prelude to future research.

The indigenous phytoseiid predatory mite Neoseiulus indicus (Narayanan and Kaur) was recorded by several Indian researchers as a predator of different species of phytophagous mites including Oligonychus indicus, Tetranychus urticae, T. neocaledonicus, T. ludeni, T. macfarleni, Polyphagotarsonemus latus and the astigmatid mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae.For the first time in the country, a simple protocol has been developed for mass rearing of N. indicus in closed units on the astigmatid mite T. putrescentiae, which in turn could be maintained on a wheat bran medium.Neoseiulus indicus has been successfully and continuously mass reared for more than four years at the ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, India.A simple release methodology has also been developed for the mass reared predatory mites.This rearing protocol can be adopted by commercial units and also by farmers/polyhouse growers as an on-farm production system.

Experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of different temperature regimes (16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36±1 ° C) on the biological and fertility table parameters of Orius tantillus (Motsch.), an efficient indigenous predator of various thrips species in India Temperature influenced the development and reproduction of O. tantillus . Based on the biological parameters, viz. longevity, fecundity and fertility parameters, 24 ° C was recorded to be the optimum temperature for rearing O. tantillus . The temperature of 16 ° C had a detrimental effect on nymphal survival, while 36 ° C on fecundity. Thus, 16 and 36 ° C were recorded as unsuitable for rearing O. tantillus . The lower threshold temperatures for development of eggs and nymphs of O. tantillus were 8.66 and 6.92 ° C, respectively, indicating that the eggs are more heat-sensitive than the nymphs. Based on the T 0 values, O. tantillus appears to be less heat sensitive in comparison to other Orius spp. The information generated through this study could be used for further improving the standardized production protocol for O. tantillus and also for planning and timing field releases to target thrips species.

Morphology and performance specifications of Blaptosthethus pallescens Poppius (Heteroptera

Orius tantillus (Motsch.) is a potential indigenous predator feeding on different species of thrips infesting vegetables, fruits and ornamentals. Laboratory studies were conducted at National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects, Bangalore, to understand the effect of different laboratory hosts on the fertility table parameters and contnuous rearing of an anthocorid predator, Orius tantillus (motsch.). Based on the fertility table parameters of O. tantillus, the present study concluded that eggs of Sitotroga cerealella (Oliv.) can be utilized effectively for the multiplication of this anthocorid predator. Continuous laboratory rearing for 12 generations on the alternate laboratory host eggs further indicated that S. cerealella was a more suitable laboratory host in comparison to Corcyra cephalonica Stainton.

Cardiastethus exiguus Poppius is an indigenous anthocorid predator of eggs and neonates of the notorious pest,coconut black-headed caterpillar Opisina arenosella Walker in India.At the National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects(Indian Council of Agricultural Research),Bangalore,India,a simple mass production protocol was developed for multiplying C.exiguus using UV-irradiated eggs of alternate laboratory host Corcyra cephalonica Stainton.Field evaluation of the predator in the states of Kerala and Karnataka indicated that this predator could bring about a significant reduction in the pest population.Subsequently,the need was felt to investigate the storage efficacy of the eggs and adults of C.exiguus so that sufficient numbers could be accumulated and transportation of the predator could be planned for field releases.Low temperature storage studies indicated that C.exiguus eggs can be safely stored for up to 5 days at 10℃ and 10 days at 15℃ and incubation period could be staggered for up to 10 and 13 days,respectively.The longevity of the C.exiguus adults was significantly reduced due to low temperature storage.However,for adult females,a storage temperature of 15℃ for 15 days could be recommended as they could live for a more than a month after removal from storage and their progeny production was comparable to that of the control adults.

The predatory potential of two anthocorid predators, Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius and Anthocoris muraleedharani Yamada on cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley and papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink was studied under laboratory conditions. During the nymphal stage, A. muraleedharan i could feed on a total of 66 crawlers of P. solenopsis and the adult consumed 141 crawlers. Young nymphs (3-4 day old) of B. pallescens could not predate on P. solenopsis , crawlers, while, the mature nymph could consume 35 P. solenopsis crawlers and adult 23 crawlers. B. pallescens could feed on P. marginatus and the feeding potential was recorded as 18, 29 and 31 crawlers, for young nymph, mature nymph and adult, respectively. However, the longevity of B. pallescens was found significantly reduced when fed on P. marginatus . A. muraleedharani could not predate on P. marginatus. Though B. pallescens could predate on both mealybug species, A. muraleedharani appeared to be a more voracious predator of P. solenopsis based on its greater predatory potential, higher adult longevity and shorter nymphal duration.

Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius （Heteroptera:Anthocoridae）,which is amenable to mass rearing,has proved to be a potential predator of sucking pests like mites and thrips.Recently,the cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley emerged as a serious pest on cotton in India.Laboratory studies indicated that B.pallescens could feed on the cotton mealybug.Hence,further investigations were conducted to understand the stage of the predator which is most potential and the pest stage preferred by the predator.Mature nymphs and adults of B.pallescens could predate equally well on the neonates of cotton mealybug.Young （three to four-day-old） nymphs of the predator could not feed on any stage of the cotton mealybug.Mature nymphs （seven-day-old and above） and adults could effectively predate on both young and mature cotton mealybug crawlers,though preference was more for the younger crawlers.However,nymphs and adults of B.pallescens could not predate on the adult stage of the mealybug.Different predator:pest ratios were tested in cage studies and it emerged that B.pallescens adults released against the mealybug crawlers at a ratio of 1:5 and nymphal release at 1:10 caused maximum mortality of the mealybug crawlers.Considering the fast multiplication rate of cotton mealybug and the large number of predators which have to be released to manage them,further detailed studies are necessary on utilizing B.pallescens to target the neonates and younger stages of the cotton mealybug in field conditions.

Anthocoris muraleedharani Yamada, sp. nov. is described from Karnataka State, southern India, and is distinguished from its allies, A. dividens Bu & Zheng, 2001 and A. miyamotoi Hiura, 1959, by the coloration of hemelytra and legs and structure of male genitalia. Anthocoris muraleedharani Yamada, sp. nov. feeds on striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell, 1893) (Coccomorpha: Pseudococcidae), which attacks purple orchid tree, Bauhinia purpurea Linnaeus (Fabaceae). Biology of the new bug is briefly discussed. A key to the Indian species of Anthocoris Fallen, 1814 is also given.

The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a very serious pest of many crops in temperate and tropical climates. Several of the attempts to control this mite by using chemical insecticides have failed mainly because of development of pesticide resistance. Though several natural enemies have been recorded as potential predators of T. urticae, the predator used most often has been the phytoseiid mite Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot. Earlier studies have also indicated that anthocorid predators are effective biological control agents of spider mites. An anthocorid predator Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) was collected from the field and successfully multiplied on the eggs of the rice moth Corcyra cephalonica Stainton. Laboratory studies indicated that B. pallescens could feed on 190 and 116 T. urticae nymphs during its nymphal and adult stages, respectively. In the net house studies, there was a 78% reduction in the mite population in the treated bhendi (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.) plants where the anthocorid releases were made, in comparison to control indicating that B. pallescens is a promising candidate to control two spotted spider mites.

Protocols for the mass rearing of the anthocorid predator, Orius tantillus (Motschulsky), were standardised by utilising UV-irradiated Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) eggs as prey. By maintaining 150 ovipositional containers with 50 O. tantillus adults in each, and by providing S. cerealella eggs as feeding and pieces of bean pods as ovipositional substrates, 86,250 nymphs could be produced per month. By taking into account the fixed and variable costs, the cost of 100 seven-day-old O. tantillus nymphs was worked out to be Rs. 34.30. The protocols developed can be adopted for commercial production.

Laboratory studies were conducted to check the feeding preferencc of anthocorid predators, Orius tantillus (Motsch.) and Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius for unparasitized eggs of Coreyra cephalonica (Stainton) and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) and those parasitized by Trichogramma chilonis Ishii. In a no-choice situation, O. Tantillus and B. Pallescens nymphs devoured more than 90 per cent of the unparasitized C. Cephalonica eggs provided and only 1.6 and 10 percent, respectively, of the parasitized eggs, while such a preferential feeding was not observed in adults. Given a choice of parasitized and un parasitized C. Cephalonica eggs, nymphs and adults of both the species of anthocorids preferred to feed on unparasitised eggs. In the experiments with H. Armigera eggs, the significantly higher preference the nymphal and adult stages of both anthocorid predators for unparasitized eggs, indicated that it may be possible to integrate releases of anthocorids and trichogrammatids for biololgical control of lepidopteran pests/thrips in different crop ecosystems.

Biology and feeding potential of an anthocorid predator. Onus tantillus (Motsch.) were studied under laboratory conditions using UV irradiated eggs of alternate host, Angoumois grain moth Sitotroga cerealella. (O1.). The mean incubation period was five days. Four nymphal instars were recorded and the total nymphal duration was 16.7 days. Longevity of adult male and female was 23.4 and 27 days, respectively. Mean fecundity per female was 33 eggs. Mean nymphal feeding was 43.8 S. cerealella eggs, while adult male and female fed on a total of 94.5 and 122.3 eggs, respectively. Considering the cost of host eggs alone, the cost of producing 100 O. tantillus nymphs was Re. 0.82 and that of 100 adults Rs. 4.67. This study indicates the suitability of S. cerealella eggs for mass rearing O. tantillus. Morphological characters for differentiating the sex of adults and morphometries of all stages have been studied.

Biology and feeding potential of an anthocorid predator, Blaptostethus pallescens Pop pius were studied on the eggs of alternate host, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton). Approximately 100 UV irradiated C. cephalonica eggs are required for rearing one nymph throughout its nymphal period of about 16 days (4-11 eggs per day) and 630 eggs for an adult throughout its longevity (3-19 eggs per day). Adult females had a greater feeding potential (943 eggs per adult) in comparison to males (381 eggs per adult). Utilising 9cc of C. cephalonica eggs , 1000 B. pallescens could be produced. The lab-reared adults had a very high longevity (38- 78 days) and fecundity (110-203 nymphs/female), indicating the suitability of C. cephalonica eggs for mass production.