Background: Varicella zoster virus (VZV) infections are common and contribute substantially to morbidity and mortality among HIV-infected patients. This study was conducted to determine the level of exposure, compare the gender distribution pattern and correlate with CD4 count, history of chicken pox and demographics among HIV patients. Methodology: Blood samples were collected from 273 randomly selected HIV-positive patients (93 males and 180 females) receiving care and management at the General Hospital Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria, between September 2019 and March 2020, after obtaining informed consent. Sera were separated from the blood samples and tested for the presence of VZV-specific IgG antibodies using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Results: The seroprevalence rate of VZV in the selected HIV patients was 76.9% (210/273), which was similar in both male (83.9%, 78/93) and female (73.3%, 132/180) patients (χ2=3.265, p=0.071). The seroprevalence rates of VZV in both male and female patients were significantly associated with marital status, occupational status, and CD4+ cell count (p<0.05), however, age group was not significantly associated with VZV seroprevalence in both male (χ2=8.014, p=0.155) and female (χ2=4.689, p=0.455) patients. The seroprevalence of VZV in males (32%) who reported history of chicken pox was about twice that of females (17.4%) (OR=2.235, 95% CI=1.162-4.302, p=0.023). Conclusion: The level of exposure of HIV-infected individuals to VZV in Offa, Nigeria is high and is similarly distributed in both male and female genders. However, more males with VZV exposure reported history of chicken pox (acute infection) than their female counterparts.

Infection by Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) causes viral encephalitis in humans. It is endemic in Asia and western Pacific regions with no reported case in Nigeria so far. This study aimed at detecting evidence of circulation and pattern of exposure of individuals in Ilorin, Nigeria to JEV. A total of 139 febrile patients attending outpatient departments of Sobi specialist hospital, Civil service hospital and University of Ilorin health center participated in the study. About 5 ml of venous blood was collected from each participant and the plasma tested for the presence of anti-JEV IgG antibody using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique. Anti-JEV IgG antibody was detected in 32% (45/139) of the participants. Males were more exposed (37%) than female participants (27.3%). Similarly, participants with travel history outside of the country were more exposed (44.4%) than those without travel history (29.5%). Further analysis on the basis of age, marital and working status showed no statistical association between these variables and anti-JEV positivity (p˃0.05). This study has provided serological evidence of the circulation of JEV among Ilorin inhabitants and therefore calls for active surveillance for the infection in order to forestall any future major outbreak.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne viral disease which is becoming a serious global public health problem. The principal vector in many parts of Africa is Aedes species . There are recent reports of CHIKV importation into Europe, Asia and America by travelers returning from west and central Africa. Yet, there is scanty information from the guinea savannah region of Nigeria. This study determined previous exposure to CHIKV in the urban population. It is a cross-sectional study involving 89 participants enrolled from three hospitals in Ilorin, Kwara State. A qualitative Chikungunya Enzyme Linked Immunoassay kit was used to detect IgG antibodies. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 22. Statistically significant level was p≤0.05. Out of the study participants, 24.7% were previously exposed to CHIKV. Age group 31-40years had highest proportion while children under 10years had least IgG level. In this study, we found Chikungunya to be endemic in Ilorin Nigeria. There is need for sustained surveillance, to determine spatio-temporal epidemiology of CHIKV. Efforts should be poised to strengthen vector control measures. Keywords: Chikungunya virus, Immunoglobulin G, Guinea Savannah, Ilorin, Urban

Human T-cell lymphotropic virus types I/II (HTLV-I/II) is endemic in some parts of the world including Nigeria. Reported prevalence rates in Nigeria have largely focused on blood donors. This study aims at determining the prevalence of HTLV infection among pregnant women in Ilorin North-central Nigeria. Serum samples from 276 pregnant women who were antenatal clinic attendees at General and Civil Service Hospitals in Ilorin were tested for the presence of HTLV-I/II antibodies using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay test kits from Diagnostic Automation INC., USA. Out of the 276 women tested, 3 tested positive giving a prevalence rate of 1.1%. The result was analyzed on the basis of age, marital status, nature of family, educational status, occupation, religion, parity, and gestational stage of the women. There was no statistical association of HTLV positivity with any of the variables. Although relatively lower than prevalence rate recorded among similar study groups in other parts of the country, the 1.1% prevalence in this study underscores the need for proper education and creation of awareness among antenatal clinic attendees, so as to reduce viral transmission and incidence of HTLV-related diseases.

Since HIV, HBV and HCV share common routes of transmission and acquisition, HIVinfected patients are likely exposed to HB and C viruses. We hypothesised that there was no difference between prevalence rate of HB and C infections among HIV-infected patients accessing healthcare at HIV and AIDS section of University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin, Nigeria. This is a hospital-based cross sectional study. After obtaining ethical approval, we consecutively selected consenting 356 participants from whom we obtained pertinent sociodemographic data using questionnaire forms; after which we aseptically collected blood samples and prepared plasma from each. The latter were tested, using ELISA, for presence of HBsAg and anti-HCV antibody. The results were analyzed using t-test and binary logistic regression. Of the 356 (128 males and 228 females: age range 7 months-70 years, mean age 36.5 years) HIV-infected participants, 114 (32.0%) and 14 (3.9%) were respectively positive for HBsAg and anti-HCV antibody; these respectively represented dual HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV infection rates. The HIV-positive participants had more than 11 times (p=0.001) likelihood of being HBsAg positive than being anti-HCV antibody positive. Group-specific prevalence rate was also higher for HIV-HBV dual infection. Conclusively, the HIV-infected participants had significantly higher HB rate compared to HC, this was suggestive of higher infectiousness of HBV and greater exposure to HBV than HCV. The only variable predictive of HIV-HCV or HIVHBV dual infection was education. But, occupation and history of blood transfusion were respectively predictive of HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV dual infection among the study participants.

The in vitro antimicrobial activities of the aqueou s and ethanolic extracts of Tithonia diversifolia l eaf, stem and root were studied. Two bacterial isolates (Escherichia c oli and Salmonella typhi) and fungus (Candida albic ans) were subjected to susceptibility testing using two treatment levels of the extracts (0.05 and 0.1 g/ml). Solvents (aqueous and ethanol) and two antibiotics (30 μg Ampicillin a d 5 μg Ciprofloxacin) were included as negative a nd positive control respectively. The solvents did not show app reciable growth inhibition when compared to the ext rac s and reference drugs. The ethanolic extract showed highe r growth inhibitory effect on all the test organism when compared to the aqueous extract except for E. coli. Similarly, the root and leaf extracts showed bette r growth inhibition compared to the stem. The inhibitory eff ect was found to be dose dependant. E. coli was mor e susceptible to the extracts as indicated by the mean zone of in hibition which decreased from 31.10 ± 1.01 mm (100% ) in the positive control (Ampicillin) to 25.00 ± 0.50 mm (8 0%) in ethanolic root extract and 22.50 ± 0.58 mm ( 75%) in aqueous leaf extract at 0.1 g/ml concentration. Bot h ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the various pla nt parts were found to be less effective on Salmonella typhi. Thi s is indicated by low zone of inhibition which rang ed between 0.00 ± 0.00 mm (0%)-13.50 ± 0.29 mm (41%). The ethanolic and aqueous root extracts at 0.1 g/ml showed bette r potency on Candida albicans with mean inhibitory zone of 27 .50 ± 0.87 mm (72%) and 25.00 ± 0.29 mm (79%) respe ctiv ly. These values compared well with reference drug Cipr ofloxacin. The results indicate that T. diversifoli a leaf and root could serve as good sources of antimicrobial agent.

This review study reports on global eradication of measles: a highly contagious and vaccine preventable disease-what went wrong in its eradication in Africa. Measles is one of the most contagious human diseases which have continued to cause large outbreaks all over the world even in countries that have achieved high vaccination coverage with a single dose strategy. The disease can also lead to lifelong disabilities including brain damage, blindness, and deafness. These serious complications are rare in developed countries where measles vaccine is widely available, the highest mortality is however found in poor nations. The disease has remained the fifth leading cause of deaths among children less than five years of age, worldwide. It accounts for 44% of total deaths due to vaccine preventable diseases (VPD), among children less than 15 years, the highest mortality occurring in poor communities with malnutrition, overcrowding and low vaccination coverage. Indeed, measles transmission has been interrupted in several countries, reinforcing the view that measles eradication is technically feasible using existing vaccines and intervention strategies. However, measles still accounts for 10% of global mortality from all causes among children aged <5 years (i.e., approximately 1 million deaths annually). Progress toward measles control varies substantially among countries and regions. In Nigeria where there is perennial, low routine vaccination coverage and where the quality of the mass immunization campaign is not high enough, large and persistent measles outbreaks continue to occur with high morbidity and mortality. Today, despite the availability of a safe, effective and relatively inexpensive vaccine for more than 40 years, measles still kills more than any other vaccines preventable disease among children. There is therefore, the urgent need to revisit the measles immunization and vaccination programme in Africa and in our country Nigeria with the sole aim of introducing a two-dose schedule to halt the endemic transmission. This is believed to bring about the successful eradication of measles in Africa. Intensified efforts will be necessary to implement appropriate control and elimination strategies, including supplementary vaccination campaigns, expansion of routine vaccination services, and surveillance. These strategies and estimates of the resources will also be required to implement them will require adjustment based on accumulating experience. Programmatic and financial obstacles must be overcome if the final goal of measles eradication is to be achieved.   Key words: Epidemiology; highly contagious disease, immunization, immunosuppression public health; vaccination, vaccine preventable disease, measles, measles virus, measles vaccine

This work reports on the microbial composition of stagnant fish ponds and mineral & metal composition of Clarias gariepinus from the fish ponds in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. The fishes apparently thrived well in the fish ponds. Microbiological analysis of the different fish ponds as well as the mineral composition of the fish samples were carried out. Results revealed bacterial counts ranging from 1.0-2.0 x 104 cfu/ml of the stagnant ponds water, 9.0 x 103-1.2 x 104cfu/ml of water from fish ponds whose water was changed daily and 3-10 x 103 cfu/ml of water from borehole. Total coliform count ranged from 6 x 103-1.5 x 104 cfu/ml of the stagnant pond water, 6-18 cfu/100ml of water from ponds whose water was changed daily and 1-6 cfu/100ml of water from borehole. Pathogenic fungi (Aspergillus niger) was isolated from the stagnant pond water while none was isolated from fish ponds whose water was changed daily. Faecal coliforms were not isolated from any of the water samples. Analysis of the mineral composition of the fish samples showed that phosphorus and potassium were highest in fish from ponds that the water is changed daily. Metal concentration in the fish showed that Cd ,Pb, Co and Cr did not exceed the maximum acceptable concentration for humans. Proper cooking before consumption of fish is therefore advocated to prevent transmission of the bacteria and fungi to the consumers.Keywords: Clarias gariepinus, microbial survey, mineral composition, Ilorin, Nigeria

The objective of this study is to isolate, identify and evaluate the effect of Klebsiella pnemoniae in relation to the catfish, by isolating the microorganisms present on the catfish skin and intestine. To find out if Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria isolate can survive in the fish (immunity of fish) and observation of the public health hazard that bacteria i.e. test organism and natural flora exposes the people to, samples of catfish were analyzed using standard techniques. The physicochemical analysis showed that there were changes in the pH, the temperature and the dissolved oxygen of the water samples. The distributions of the bacteria species isolated from the catfish intestine and on the skin showed that Klebsiella pneumoniae [12(25.0%)] was the most predominant bacteria isolates. This was followed by Enterococcus feacalis [9(18.6%)], Staphylococcus aureus [7(14.6%)], Escherichia coli [6(12.5%)], Citrobacter ferundii [5(10.4%)], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [5(10.4%)], and Bacillus subtilis [4(8.3%)]. It also showed that Enterococcus feacalis and Citrobacter ferundii were absent in all the skin samples of the catfish but present in all the intestines. Klebsiella pneumoniae was present on all the skin and intestines of the catfish samples. Escherichia coli were present in all the skin and intestine except for skin of the catfish samples in Experiment 1. Bacillus subtilis was only present in the skin of the catfishes used as control. Staphylococcus aureus was absent in all the intestine of the catfishes samples but present in their skins. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was absent in all the samples except for the intestines of the catfishes used as control and those in experiment 2. Generally, Klebsiella pneumoniae inoculated into catfish Clarias gariepinus presented to be virulent in the fishes leading to shedding of skin patches and fading of colour on skin from black to faint black. The findings of this study showed that Klebsiella pneumoniae may cause an infection in catfish and can act as a vector of human pathogen. Furthermore, other bacteria were isolated which may be resident flora of the catfish. Therefore, it is important to handle fishes with proper hygiene and best public health measures since fishes are used for consumption. [Udeze AO, Talatu M, Ezediokpu MN, Nwanze JC, Onoh C, Okonko IO. The Effect of Klebsiella pnemoniae on Catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Researcher. 2012;4(4):51-59]. (ISSN: 1553-9865). http://www.sciencepub.net. 9

This study aimed at determining the prevalence of Hepatitis B surface antigenaemia among first year students of University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria. A total of 200 students (119 males and 81 females: ages 16 to 40 years), who consented voluntarily after thorough explanation of the purpose of the study, were selected. The sera of the participants were tested for the presence of HBsAg by parallel diagnostic method using Diaspot® HBsAg test kit and Smart CheckTM HBsAg device. Of the 200 samples tested, 18 (9.0%) were HBsAg positive. The result also showed that 13 (10.9%) out of the 119 males were positive, while 5 (6.2%) out of the 81 females were positive. Analysis of the results by age groups showed that subjects ≤20 years had a prevalence of 9.8%, subjects of age range 21-30 years had a prevalence of 8.1% while subjects of age range 31-40 years had zero prevalence. Analysis of the results according to the risk factors of transmission showed that subjects who reported circumcision only had a prevalence of 7.4%, while subjects who reported history of medical operation and blood transfusion had a prevalence of 10.0%. Among subjects who reported HBV vaccination only, prevalence of 8.3% was recorded, while 12.5% prevalence was recorded for subjects who reported a combination of circumcision, medical operation and blood transfusion. This study however confirmed the presence of Hepatitis B surface antigenaemia among apparently healthy first year students of the University of Ilorin. General surveillance, mass immunization and public health education to stop the spread of the infection on campus and indeed the whole society is advocated. Key words : Prevalence, HBsAg, antigenaemia, students

The impact of E. coli on catfish (Clarias gariepinus) was investigated in the course of the project. The bacterium used in this study was a clinical isolate sourced from the University of Ilorin teaching Hospital (UITH), Ilorin. Various physicochemical parameters of the aquaculture which includes; dissolved oxygen, daily pH and temperature readings were also studied during the duration of the project work. E. coli was inoculated into Clarias gariepinus distributed into experiment 1 and 2 and the control was left uninoculated and observed for 7 days. At the end of the experiment, the test organism, E. coli was re-isolated from experiment 2 and not from experiment 1 and the control experiment. Other bacteria isolates were obtained and characterized from the fishes. They include; Yersinia enterocolitica, Klebsiella sp., Vibro sp., Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus sp. All the bacteria isolates were isolated from both the skin and the intestine of the fishes except E. coli which was found only in the intestine. (Udeze AO, Sowoolu GA, Ezediokpu MN, Nwanze JC, Onoh C, Okonko IO. The Effect of Escherichia coli on Catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Report and Opinion 2012;4(4):36-42). (ISSN: 1553-9873). http://www.sciencepub.net/report . 7

Ten duplicate samples of fresh meat (beef) were randomly sampled from 2 major markets (Watt and Marian) in Calabar, Nigeria and analyzed microbiologically for the rates of Gram negative bacteria. The mean microbial load on the fresh meat from Watt market ranged between 2.62 x 10 4.84 x 10 cfu/g and total coliform count between 1.05 x 10 3.72 x 10 cfu/g while the fresh meat from Marian market ranged between 2.24 x 10 5.01 X 10 cfu/g and total coliform count between 1.23 x 10 3.42 x l0cfu/g. A total of 36 isolates belonging to eight genera include Klebsiella pneumoniae [6(16.7%)] which was the most predominant, followed by Enterobacter spp [5(13.9%)], Citrobacter freundii [5(13.9%)], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [4(11.1%)], Escherichia coli [4(11.1%)], Salmonella spp [4(11.1%)], Serratia marcescens [4(11.1%)], and Pseudomonas spp [3(8.3%)]. Proteus vulgaris [1(2.8%)] was less predominant. Statistical analysis of the mean microbial load and total coliform count showed no significant difference between the two markets (P>0.05). This study reveals that fresh meats are often contaminated with bacteria. The presence of higher number of pathogenic Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella and Escherichia coli among others, encountered in fresh meat from conventional beef is alarming. The presence of these organisms in meat foods should receive particular attention, because their presence indicate public health hazard and give warning signal for the possible occurrence of food borne intoxication.

This study was carried out to determine the seroreactivity of blood of children attending Kogi Diagnostic and Reference Hospital, Anyigba to HIV-1/2 peptides and to evaluate some of the children's demographic variables that are associated with anti-H IV- 1/2 antibody positivity. We consecutively selected and screened 100 male and female children (aged ≤ 16 years). Blood sample of each child was screened for HIV-1/2 antibodies using Chembio HIV-1/2 Stat-Pak(superscript ®) and Abbott Determine HIV-1/2(superscript ®) test kits. Only participants that were sero-reactive to the two test kits were identified as seropositive for HIV-1/2 antibodies. The results showed a prevalence rate of 10.0% (n=100). Risk factors for HIV infection like age, gender, and tribal marks appeared not significantly associated with anti-HIV-1/2 antibody positivity among the children (P=0.142, P=0.463 and P=0.812, respectively). Conclusively, there was no sufficient evidence that age, gender and tribal marks were associated with positivity of HIV-1/2 antibodies among the children studied. This study has been able to add to the information on prevalence of HIV-1/2 antibodies among children in Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria. Education of children on HIV and AIDS should continue.

This study reports on the incidence of Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) organisms in poultry feeds sold in Calabar metropolis, Nigeria. Twenty samples of poultry feeds were purchased from different locations and analyzed microbiologically using standard methods. Significant enough to note is the microbial loads of these poultry feeds, which were quite high 1.232 x 10 9 cfu/g (Top feeds) and 1.03 x 10 8 cfu/g (Vitals feeds). Eight bacteria isolates we re obtained and identified as Bacillus sp. (3(15.0%)), Esch erichia coli (2(10.0%)), Nocardia sp. (2(10.0%)), Salmonella sp. (3(15.0%)), Proteus mirabilis (2(10.0%)), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (4(20.0%)), Staphylococcus aureus (2(10.0%)), and Streptococcus pyogenes (2(10.0%)). The antibiotics susceptibility profile showed that S. aureus and S. pyogenes were more susceptible (75%) to the test antibiotics, followed by E. coli (72.7%), Nocardia sp. (58.3%) and Proteus mirabilis (54.5%). All gram-positive isolates were resistant to ampiclox (100%) and sensitive to streptomycin and ciprocin (100%) while all gram negative isolates were resistant to tetracycline and ampicillin (100%). However, all isolates satisfied the most common multidrug resistance patterns (>3 antibiotics resistant). Generally, significantly higher number of multidrug- resistant Pseudomonas (10(90.1%)), Bacillus sp. (9(83.3%)), Salmonella sp. (8(72.7%)), P. m irabilis (5(45.5%)), and Nocardia sp. (5(41.7%)) were noted in this study. Low resistance rates was observed for E. coli (3(27.3%)), S. aureus and S. pyogenes (3(25%)) was found in the poultry feeds. The MIC values of tetracycline of the isolates ranged from 0.13-8.00 mcg/ml. Among all the test organisms only S. aureus (25%) was susceptible to tetracycline at an MIC value of 0.13 mcg/ml. This showed that 75% of the bacterial species exhibited an MIC value of 0.25-8.00 mcg/ml. To reduce the effect of these MDR organisms in poultry feeds; antibiotics incorporated into feeds should be in synergistic combinations, as this will prevent the possibility of resistance development. The findings of this study confirm the presence of multi-drug resistant organisms in animal feeds sold in Nigeria. It significantly points to the great need to evaluate and monitor the incidence rate of multi-drugs (antibiotics) resistant organisms in poultry feeds.

This article reviews the feasibility of global eradication of rabies and factors affecting eradication of rabies in the world. Effective vaccines are now available against many viruses making eradication a viable proposition. As in the case of smallpox, the following questions should be addressed when the feasibility of eradication of a particular human virus disease is considered. Is the disease worth eradicating? Is there any animal reservoir? Is there a carrier state? Is effective vaccination available? How communicable is the rabies? What level of coverage is required for eradication? What are the possibilities for rabies control in reservoir hosts? Can rabies be controlled in wildlife reservoirs? Can the population density of reservoir hosts be reduced? Can contact between wild dogs and domestic dogs be minimized? Whether a virus disease can be eradicated or not depends on many factors, not least on the will power to implement such a policy. These factors include human (increased human activities and international travel; lack of adequate public awareness, proper surveillance, emergency preparedness planning, solid commitment and resourced initiatives among others); socioeconomic (major ecologic changes, agricultural practices, poverty, increasing demands for meat etc.); animal factors (illegal importation, population increase, migration of dogs, stray animals etc.); and vaccines and vaccination (low vaccination coverage and potent vaccines, vaccine failure, inferior vaccine quality, vaccine shortage, high cost, existence of multiple hosts, reservoir and healthy carriers etc.). Rabies eradication is not feasible because of the extensive factorsand the inability to eliminate reservoirs with existing technology. However, elimination of human rabies in urban areas may be possible through different strategies. Vaccination of stray dogs could lead to the eradication of rabies in countries where dog rabies is the sole source of human exposure. Research to design strategies for rabies control globally, is urgently needed. Additional genetic work will help to set priorities for the conservation of populations which may be genetically unique for spread of rabies and other related diseases. Key words: Animal factor, continual endemicity, effective vaccines, eradicability, feasibility, human, socioeconomic, vaccination.

This study examines and reports the prevalence of plasmodium species between gender of freshmen (first year students) of Nnamdi Azikwe University, Akwa, South-Eastern, Nigeria. Blood film examination for malaria parasites in 200 (100.0%) freshmen; 82 (41.0%) males and 118 (59.0%) females was carried out over a 6-month period. Microscopic examinations of both thick and thin blood films techniques were employed for this study. A high malaria parasite prevalence rate of 80% was noted in these subjects. Of the 200 samples examined, 160 (80.0%) were Plasmodiumpositive. There was a female preponderance (F/M 2:1). A higher Plasmodium prevalence was recorded amongst females 102 (86.4%) than in the males 58 (70.7%) and there was no significant increase in malaria infection rate in any particular sex (P=0.05). Plasmodium falciparum was the most prevalent of all the other species. This study also shows that a good percentage of people were infested by malaria with P. falciparum [134 (83.8%)] being the most prevalent species, followed by P. malariae [14 (8.9%)], P. vivax [8 (5.0%)] and P. ovale [4 (2.5%)]. P. ovale was only found among the female subjects and none was found among the male subjects. The findings of this study are of a practical impact, with female subjects having the highest proportion of parasitic contamination. The higher prevalence of malaria Plasmodium found in this study could be attributed to the stagnant drainage systems in the University, which created favorable environmental conditions for the breeding of mosquitoes that act as vectors of malaria parasites and so this enhances the proliferation of the Plasmodium. It could also be attributed to the effect of climatic features on vector breeding and transmission. Wet season usually promote mosquito breeding. Also, the prevalence of P. falciparum could be attributed to its ability to resist attack of most drugs that are commonly in use in the study area. However, there should be a high index for the needs to take appropriate measures aimed at preventing malaria by intensifying efforts in mosquitoes eradication program through operation roll back malaria in Africa, especially in Nigeria.

This article reports on conflict, peace support operations and spread of emerging infectious diseases as well as factors that potentiate emergence and transmission of infectious diseases in conflict situations and highlights several priority actions for their containment and control. Conflict is a complex system of clash or disagreement, often violent, between two opposing groups or individuals. Conflicts and wars have become a common place in the world, especially in Africa. So pervading are these conflicts and wars that African countries readily come to mind in any discourse on conflicts and wars any where in the world today. Infectious diseases continue to occur throughout the world, both sporadically and as outbreaks, because of multiple factors. Disease emergence is influenced by and environmental changes (e.g., agriculture, deforestation, droughts and floods), human demographics and behavior (e.g., population migration, urbanization, conflicts, international trade and travel), technology and industry, microbial adaptation and breakdown in public health measures. Conflict leaves populations in dire poverty, internally displaced or seeking asylum, having poor access to essential services and consequentially vulnerable to infectious diseases. Conflict situations present a multitude of risk factors that enhance disease emergence and transmission, over and above those in other resource-poor countries. The propensity for emerging infectious disease outbreaks to occur in conflict-affected countries and the need to monitor and respond more effectively to such events cannot be over-emphasized. Detection, containment and control of emerging infectious diseases in conflict situations are major challenges because of multiple risk factors that promote disease transmission and hinder control even more than those in many resource-poor settings. Beyond the global public health imperative to prevent the international spread of infectious diseases, there is also a moral imperative to alleviate the effects of these diseases on already vulnerable conflict-affected populations.