Autistic youth are more likely to be involved in bullying, have poorer mental health, and experience friendships and social support differently compared to neurotypical youth. What remains unclear is whether the relationship between bullying and mental health is different for autistic and neurotypical youth and whether friendships and social support moderate this relationship. In this United Kingdom-based population-based study, we investigated the relationship between bullying involvement, victimization, and perpetration, from early childhood (age 5 years) through to mid-adolescence (age 14 years) with mental health outcomes in later adolescence (age 17 years) for autistic (n = 576) and neurotypical youth (n = 14,963). We used parent-, teacher-, and self-reports of bullying at ages 5, 7, 11, and 14 years to identify five bullying trajectory groups (uninvolved, adolescent victim, early childhood victim, early childhood bully, and bully-victims). Autistic youth were more likely than their neurotypical peers to be in one of the bullying trajectory groups compared to being in the uninvolved group. Specifically, 74% of autistic youth experienced bullying either as victims, bullies, or bully-victims between early childhood and adolescence compared to 38% of neurotypical youth. Both autistic and neurotypical youth who were involved in bullying, whether as a perpetrator or victim, experienced poorer subsequent mental health later in adolescence. Higher perceived social support buffered the effects of bullying involvement for neurotypical and, to a lesser extent, autistic youth. These findings highlight the need for further research focusing on possible targets for intervention to mitigate the possible impacts of bullying on subsequent mental health for autistic youth.

Child and adolescent development is influenced by complex interplay between a range of diverse factors. The network approach is gaining popularity as a way of modelling such complex processes. Here we used the network approach to investigate whether developmental differences and disorders can be conceptualised as arising from causal interactions between characteristics and symptoms. We used data from four population-based birth cohorts in England (n=47,315), those born in the 1970s, 1990s, and 2000s, to investigate interrelations between areas of psychological functioning that underpin learning and engagement in education settings (i.e., memory, attention, non-verbal ability, arithmetic skills, reading, language and communication, motor skills, neurodevelopmental characteristics, psychopathology, social functioning, and wellbeing). We fitted 12 undirected psychometric network models; one network for each cohort and developmental stage (early childhood; 3-5 years, middle childhood; 7-10 years, adolescence; 13-18 years). We then determined how these areas of functioning cluster within developmental domains. Clustering differed between childhood and adolescence. In early and middle childhood, psychological functioning, generally, clustered within two related developmental domains: (1) cognition and language and (2) social and emotional functioning. In adolescence, they clustered within three developmental domains (1) cognition and language and (2) social functioning, and (3) emotional functioning. We demonstrate that developmental differences and disorders can be conceptualised as likely resulting from causal interactions between different areas of psychological functioning. They arise through bottom-up processes, whereby a given symptom or characteristic activates or leads to another; symptoms or characteristics that activate or lead to each other cluster together and appear as neurodevelopmental or psychiatric conditions. Differences and disorders that appear to be similar, prima facie, may be underpinned by diverse etiologies. Our work provides the first population-level evidence for a needs-based support system in schools; children and adolescents with developmental disorders and differences should be supported by targeting specific characteristics and symptoms with the aim of deactivating clusters or related characteristics and symptoms. Such an approach does not rely on waiting for a diagnostic label through lengthy assessment processes.

Background. Individuals with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) are disproportionally represented in the criminal justice system. The prospective associations between DLD and offending, and the educational and criminal justice pathways through which DLD might increase the risk of offending and re-offending, remain unclear. Methods. We analysed existing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (maximum N = 6,800; 51% female; 9% with DLD) with linked school data (national pupil database) and crime records (Avon and Somerset Police records for offences committed between ages 13-29 years in the region). DLD was determined when the individuals were aged 7-9 years using direct assessments and parent reports. Regression and mediation models were fitted to the data. Results. Individuals with DLD were nearly twice as likely (OR 1.78, 95% CI 1.27, 2.48) to have a recorded offence (i.e., charged or cautioned by the police) compared to those without DLD. School suspension was a significant mediator of the relationship between DLD and recorded offending. However, special educational need identification had no effect on recorded offending for those with DLD. There was also no difference in the odds of being given an out of court disposal or re-offending for individuals with DLD compared to those without DLD. Conclusions. Individuals who have DLD are more likely to be cautioned or convicted for an offence by the police than those without DLD, and this may in part be mediated by school suspension.

Background. Children and young people (CYP) with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) have poorer outcomes compared with those without SEND. It remains unclear how to best identify CYP with SEND. We examined whether profiles of CYP needs align with SEND identification and whether they discriminate young adult outcomes better than current SEND identification. Methods. We analysed data from three population-based cohorts in England: Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (N = 15,645); Millennium Cohort Study (N = 18,827); Twins Early Development Study (N = 7,859). We fitted latent mixture models to data on social and behavioural, emotional, and cognitive functioning. We did this separately for each cohort at three developmental stages: early childhood (age 3-5 years); middle childhood (age 7-9 years); adolescence (age 13-18 years). We ran logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic analyses to determine whether data-derived sub-groups discriminate young adult outcomes better than SEND identification. Results. There were CYP with similar profiles of strengths and challenges: typically developing; global difficulties; cognitive difficulties; and social, emotional, behavioural difficulties. Up to a third of CYP experienced difficulties at two or more developmental stages, indicating high levels of persistent educational need in England. SEND identification only partially overlapped with the data-derived sub-groups. Agreement was highest for global and cognitive difficulty sub-groups and lowest for emotional difficulties sub-groups. Difficulty sub-groups showed consistent associations across a range of young adult outcomes. Data-derived sub-groups discriminated university degree attainment, receipt of state benefits, anti-social behaviour, and mental health outcomes better than SEND identification, whereas SEND identification performed better only for GCSE attainment. Conclusions. Current SEND identification only partially captures underlying persistent educational need in England. Descriptive profiles of CYP’s strengths and challenges are likely to be a better alternative to the current SEND system for identifying CYP at risk of poor outcomes post compulsory education.

The topic of genetic influence is an understudied area in play research. We propose that play research can draw on behavioural genetics methodologies to investigate individual differences in children’s play. Studies applying behavioural genetic methods seek to understand how genes and the environment work together to impact behaviour, and this is an area that remains relatively unexplored in play research. In doing so, we can extend what is known about the forms, functions and origins of play in child development. To invite play researchers to consider behavioural genetics methods, we share an overview of quantitative genetic methods like twin studies, genome-wide association studies, and polygenic studies and present possible applications to play research. We suggest that variables related to children, their parents, and their genetic propensities can be used to explore linkages between play, child development outcomes and the environment.

Young people with developmental language disorder (DLD) often have poorer mental health compared to those without DLD. However, not all young people with DLD experience such difficulties. Two hundred and eighty-one young people at risk of DLD (45% Female; 53% White British) were identified from a UK based population-cohort. Main caregivers completed questionnaires about their early life (<5 years) and their mental health (at 14 years). Parent-child conflict was revealed to be an early risk factor for all mental health outcomes, at age 14. Additionally, harsh discipline and second-hand smoke predicted worse externalising problems, and gender differences predicted worse internalising problems. Further findings demonstrated that, as the number of risk factors increased, so did the severity of mental health difficulties.

School connectedness may offset mental health risks associated with childhood adversity. The present study examined the potential protective effects of school connectedness against childhood adversity when predicting adolescent mental health outcomes in 9,964 individuals (51% female, 81% white) from the Millennium Cohort Study. Structural equation models (SEMs) were fitted to examine the longitudinal relationships between childhood adversity, school connectedness, and adolescent mental health. Childhood adversity was a risk factor, predicting greater internalising and externalising problems and lower levels of positive mental health. School connectedness was a promotive factor as it predicted fewer mental health problems and greater positive mental health. Furthermore, school connectedness at age 11 was protective against childhood adversity when predicting internalising and externalising problems at age 14. That is, students with a history of adversity who felt more connected to school were less likely to exhibit internalising and externalising symptoms than those who felt less connected to school. Only school connectedness at age 11 was protective against childhood adversity, indicating that feeling connected to school at younger ages may disrupt processes linking childhood adversity to adolescent mental health. Schools should foster students’ feelings of connectedness to protect vulnerable individuals and benefit all pupils’ mental health.

Early years interventions have shown to be effective in improving the social communication and language skills of autistic children. Therefore, various play-based interventions have been developed to support those developmental areas of autistic children. Although researchers have previously reported the overall effectiveness of different types of play-based interventions on the social communication and language skills of autistic children, no previous systematic reviews have yet evaluated the effectiveness of parent-mediated play-based interventions in preschool autistic children. The overarching aims of the study will be to (i) report the key characteristics and (ii) synthesise the results of studies evaluating parent-mediated play-based interventions targeting the social communication and language skills of preschool autistic children using experimental designs. A comprehensive search for and screening of the relevant studies published between 2000 and 2021 will be undertaken. To be included, studies will have to (i) use either a randomised control trial or quasi-experimental design, (ii) focus on preschool autistic children aged six years old or younger, (iii) deliver a play-based intervention in non-educational settings, and (iv) include at least one parent as the mediator of the intervention. Data extraction of all included studies will be undertaken using a specially devised template and they will also be assessed for risk of bias using an adapted form from the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. The overall characteristics of the included studies will be reported and a narrative synthesis of the results of the included studies will be undertaken. A meta-analysis may be performed (if justified) to report the pooled effect size of the parent-mediated play-based interventions on the social communication and language skills of preschool autistic children. Trial registration: The current study protocol was pre-registered with the international prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO: CRD42022302220).

This article discusses how play research can draw on genetically sensitive data to investigate individual differences in children’s play and tackle questions relating to the origin and function of play in child development. Recent advances in genetic research show that human traits are heritable in that they are partially influenced by individual differences in DNA and behavioural traits show significant substantial genetic associations with the environment. How this relates to play is currently unclear as there is a lack of published studies using methodologies from quantitative genetic techniques like twin studies, genome-wide association studies, and polygenic modelling to study play in an ethically appropriate way. We suggest that variables related to children, their parents, and their genetic propensities can be used to explore linkages between play, children’s developmental outcomes and the environment. Such work can potentially help us better understand how play functions as a developmental mechanism.

Nearly one in two autistic adolescents is involved in sibling bullying, which is linked to increased mental health difficulties. Despite its high prevalence, only a handful of studies have focused on the relationship between sibling bullying and mental health in autistic adolescents. Of these, a vast majority of evidence comes from western cultures while little is known about non-western cultures. For the first time, the current study investigated the cross-cultural variability in the prevalence and demographic and mental health correlates of sibling bullying between a western (the United Kingdom) and non-western (Turkey) country. Parents of British (N=289) and Turkish (N=171) autistic adolescents, aged 9-20, years completed online questionnaires. Structural equation models were fitted to test the risk factors for and behavioural and mental health correlates of sibling bullying. Overall, sibling bullying was highly prevalent in the lives of both British and Turkish autistic adolescents as more than two-thirds either bullied a sibling or were bullied by a sibling every week. Consistent with previous reports, higher rates of sibling bullying were significantly correlated with poorer mental health in both British and Turkish autistic adolescents. Additionally, sibling bullying was indirectly linked to mental health difficulties through detrimental social behaviours (British and Turkish) and emotion regulation (British-only) in autistic adolescents. There were no indirect correlations between sibling bullying and mental health through social skills in either sample. Implications of these findings as well as cross-cultural similarities and differences are discussed in more detail in light of the relevant cross-cultural psychological theory.

BACKGROUND:Sibling bullying is a common childhood experience. Recent studies have shown that correlates of sibling bullying are proximal and distal. However, a lack of cross-cultural understanding still exists on the prevalence and protective factors of sibling bullying. OBJECTIVE:The objective of the current study was to examine the prevalence of sibling bullying and investigate whether positive environments protect against sibling bullying victimisation in 18 countries. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING:We analysed existing data from an international study of over 30,000 adolescents aged 10 and 12 years old, the Children's World Survey. METHODS:Adolescents reported physical and verbal sibling bullying victimisation experiences and the positive aspects of their home, neighbourhood, and school environments. Regression models were fitted to investigate whether individual- and country-level positive home, neighbourhood, and school environments are associated with sibling bullying victimisation. RESULTS:On average, the prevalence of sibling bullying victimisation was 28 %; 1 in 4 adolescents were physically hurt or called unkind names more than three times in the last month by a sibling (excluding fighting or play fighting). The prevalence varied by country; ranging from 9 %-59 %. Whilst, on the whole, individual-level positive home, neighbourhood, and school environments were associated with reduced sibling bullying victimisation (odds ratios, 0.68-0.85), these effects differed for each country. Country-level positive environments were not associated with sibling bullying victimisation. CONCLUSION:These findings demonstrate that improving adolescents' home, neighbourhood, and school environments might serve to reduce sibling bullying victimisation.

BACKGROUND:Neurodiversity is increasingly discussed in relation to autism research and practice. However, there is a lack of scholarship concerning the neurodevelopmental condition of Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) and the neurodiversity movement. While this movement may hold opportunities for the DLD community, the application of the concept of neurodiversity to DLD research and practice needs consideration, as DLD and autism have very different levels of public and professional awareness and understanding. AIMS:In this article, we discuss what the concept of neurodiversity and the associated neurodiversity movement could mean for DLD research and practice. We aim to critique some assumptions that may arise from the application of neurodiversity principles (or assumed principles) to the field of DLD. METHODS:This is a discussion paper, drawing on the personal experiences and reflections of the author team. MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS:We make the case for why DLD should be included in discussions about neurodivergence and outline considerations for doing so, and why some issues and applications may be particular to DLD. We outline points of similarity and contrast with autism in relation to our understanding of neurodiversity. We consider the issues around diagnosis and terminology and urge practitioners to continue to diagnose DLD using currently agreed terminology, so as not to undermine recent awareness efforts. We note that a neurodiversity-informed perspective challenges us to offer interventions that operate at the level of our environments, not just at the level of an individual. Indeed, neurodiversity offers a platform to argue for better rights and more inclusive spaces in mental health settings, education and work for children and adults with DLD. CONCLUSIONS:DLD should be considered from a neurodiversity-informed perspective, and it is our hope that this will lead to neurodiversity-affirming practice that will afford young people with DLD better understanding from members of the public and the professionals who work with them. Further work is needed to better support children, young people and adults with DLD to have a voice in the neurodiversity movement. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS:What is already known on the subject Neurodiversity approaches are increasingly being taken up in research and practice in relation to autism, meaning that our understanding of autism and how autistic people are supported is increasingly drawing on the principles of neurodiversity. However, autism is not the only neurodivergent population. Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is another neurodevelopmental condition; however, relative to autism, DLD has lower awareness amongst professionals and the public. There has been no scholarship that has examined DLD through the lens of neurodiversity, or considered the application of neurodiversity-affirming approaches to DLD. What this paper adds to existing knowledge In this paper, we examine what the neurodiversity movement means for DLD research and practice. In particular, we consider what neurodiversity in the field of autism might teach us about the application of neurodiversity in the field of DLD, and highlight where we believe there are important differences between the two populations. We reflect on what neurodiversity means for intervention, diagnosis, terminology and championing the need for accessibility, especially with regard to mental health support, education and employment. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Neurodiversity highlights the need to consider interventions at the level of an individual's environment (e.g., how can we make this space more inclusive?) as well as interventions operating at the level of the individual themselves (e.g., interventions focusing on an individual's language skills). We challenge the notion that neurodiversity-affirming approaches mean not diagnosing DLD or changing DLD's terminology: we argue that this is not in the spirit of the original neurodiversity movement, but also that for a condition with such low public awareness, these actions could do more harm than good for families affected by DLD. We call for more in-depth scholarship and discussion around the application of neurodiversity approaches to DLD and argue that the neurodiversity movement offers an important opportunity to raise better awareness and understanding of DLD in multiple sectors, including (but not limited to) mental health, education and employment.

Importance. Adolescents' dissatisfaction with their appearance is a modifiable risk factor of multiple negative health and wellbeing indicators (including eating disorders). Evidence on whether positive environments could play a role in reducing appearance dissatisfaction across the world is lacking Objective. To estimate the prevalence of appearance dissatisfaction globally and determine the extent to which positive home, neighbourhood, and school environments are associated with appearance dissatisfaction in early adolescence. Design, Setting, and Participants. Existing cross-sectional self-report data from the Children’s World Survey were analysed. Data from 35 countries in 4 continents (Africa, Asia, Europe, and South America) were used. Data were analysed from approximately 85,000 adolescents between 10- and 12- years old in mainstream schools between 2016-2019. Questionnaires were administered by local teams in local languages. Multilevel regression models were fitted to the data. Analyses were pre-registered.Exposure. Adolescents reported on their perceptions of care, support, safety, respect, and participation at home, school, and in their neighbourhoods using a 17-item self-report scale. Mean scores were generated for positive home, neighbourhood, and school environments, which were used as the primary exposure variables. Main Outcome. Appearance dissatisfaction was the main outcome variable and was measured using a single item asking adolescents to report how satisfied they are with the way that they look.Results. Appearance dissatisfaction ranged considerably across the world. Whilst, on the whole, girls and 12-year olds had higher levels of appearance dissatisfaction than boys and 10-year olds, this was not the case in all countries. Additionally, whilst all three positive environments were associated with lower appearance dissatisfaction, with adolescents’ home environments being the strongest predictor followed by schools and neighbourhoods. Conclusions and Relevance. Positive home, neighbourhood, and school environments are all associated with lower levels of appearance dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that interventions within homes, schools, and neighbourhoods might lead to lower levels of appearance dissatisfaction amongst adolescents.

Background and aims Despite its high potential for affecting sibling relationships, few studies have explored the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on this important family dynamic. Of these, the reported evidence has been inconsistent across cultures and lacks cross-cultural comparability. For the first time, we investigated cross-cultural variability in the impact of COVID-19, and the restrictions associated with it, on sibling relationships of autistic adolescents from a Western (United Kingdom) and non-Western (Turkey) country. We also explored how British and Turkish parents intervene in negative sibling interactions—that is, sibling bullying—when witnessed. Methods Parents of 164 British and 96 Turkish autistic adolescents, aged 9 to 20 years, were asked how they perceived the effects of COVID-19 on their children's sibling relationships, and how they were most likely to react to instances of sibling bullying. Free response data from parents were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results Our findings indicated more cross-cultural similarities than differences between British and Turkish families. The majority of both British and Turkish parents indicated that COVID-19 worsened sibling relationships between their autistic and nonautistic children. An overwhelming majority of British and Turkish parents also said that they would step in directly when witnessing sibling bullying. Despite the high volume of cross-cultural similarities generally, we also found some cross-cultural differences, for instance in relation to the most common negative impact of COVID-19 on sibling relationships and the most preferred parental responses to sibling bullying. Conclusions and implication Implications and suggestions are discussed in more detail, drawing on the Etic approach to cross-cultural psychology.

Background. Sibling bullying is associated with mental health difficulties; both in the short and long term. It is commonly assumed that sibling bullying leads to mental health difficulties but observational studies rarely allow for such inferences to be made. Method. To ad-dress this gap in knowledge, we used a genetically sensitive design with data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (maximum N=3,959). At ages 12-13 years, individuals self-reported their involvement in sibling bullying, as a victim and perpetrator, and parents reported on their child’s mental health difficulties. Polygenic scores, in-dices of genetic risk for psychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) were computed using children’s genetic data. Regression and structural equation models were fitted to the data. Results. Sibling bullying and polygenic scores both independently predicted mental health difficulties but the relationship between sibling bullying and mental health difficulties was not moderated by genetic risk. Addition-ally, polygenic scores for mental health difficulties were associated with both sibling bully-ing and mental health difficulties. Conclusion. These findings suggest that the relationship between sibling bullying and mental health difficulties is not simply causal; sibling bullying and mental health difficulties may be, at least partly, related due to shared genetic etiology.

Concerns have been raised about genomic studies of autism. Most recently, the Spectrum 10 K study was paused due to criticism from the autistic community. This situation raised important questions about how the autistic and autism communities perceive genomic research. The Personal Experiences of Autism and Perceptions of DNA-based-research study was established to address this issue. Twenty parents of nonverbal or minimally verbal autistic children took part in the current study. Data were provided in diverse formats including online interviews, telephone interviews, and writing. This approach was co-produced with autistic experts by experience. Data were analysed using reflexive Thematic Analysis. We found that participants were supportive of autism research, including some genomic research, if it is designed to support autistic people and is ethical and transparent. However, while some believed that polygenic scores, genomic predictors of the statistical probability of being autistic, would be helpful, others argued that this would only be true in an ideal world. Participants felt that they and their children were often excluded from, and unrepresented by, the autistic and autism communities. We conclude that genomic researchers need to work with the autistic and autism communities to design future work, and that it is important to ensure a representative range of voices are heard.Lay abstract In Summer 2021, a genomic study of autism, Spectrum 10 K, was paused due to backlash from the autistic and autism communities. This raised important questions about how these communities perceive genomic research. The Personal Experiences of Autism and Perceptions of DNA-based research study was established to address this issue among a range of sub-groups within these communities. Twenty parents of nonverbal or minimally verbal autistic children took part in the current study. Data were provided in diverse formats including online interviews, telephone interviews, and writing. This approach was co-produced with autistic experts by experience and involved a parent of a minimally verbal autistic child. Data were analysed using reflexive Thematic Analysis. We found that participants were supportive of autism research, including some genomic research, as long as it is designed to support autistic people and is ethical and transparent. However, while some believed that polygenic scores, genomic predictors of the statistical probability of being autistic, would be helpful, others argued that this would only be true in an ideal world and that the world is too far from ideal. Participants felt excluded from the autistic and autism communities and that the dominant voices in those communities do not represent them or their children. We concluded that genomic researchers need to work with the autistic and autism communities to design future work, and that it is important to ensure a representative range of voices are heard.

Sibling bullying is associated with poor mental health in autistic adolescents. The reasons for this remain unknown. In the current study, we attempted to replicate the existing findings on the direct associations between sibling bullying and mental health in autistic adolescents and expand knowledge by focusing on the indirect associations through self-esteem. We made use of existing data from the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative UK-based birth cohort study. We fitted a mediation model to longitudinal data from a sample of 416 autistic adolescents aged 11, 14, and 17 years old who had at least one sibling. We found that sibling bullying was prevalent in the lives of autistic adolescents, especially in those who were late-diagnosed, had a shared bedroom, and lived in a low-income household. Additionally, increased sibling bullying in early adolescence was a significant predictor of reduced self-esteem in mid-adolescence; in turn, reduced self-esteem predicted poorer mental health and wellbeing in late adolescence. Our findings indicate that sibling bullying in early adolescence may indirectly lead to poorer mental health and wellbeing in late adolescence through a reduction in self-esteem in mid-adolescence in autistic adolescents. We discuss the implications of these findings further.

Friendships play a key role in supporting a successful transition to a new school for autistic children and young people. However, little is known about how these relationships have been impacted by restrictions put in place during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to explore how parents perceived the impact of COVID-19 on their autistic child's friendships during transition to a new school. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 14 parents of autistic children in the United Kingdom. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Parents discussed a variety of experiences, which differed between and within school types and age groups. Several factors influenced children's friendships during transition including support from their new school and others' understanding of their needs. Parents described the differing expectations of what friendship was and how that affected their children's existing and new relationships. For some, COVID-19 negatively impacted on friendships by reducing contact with existing and new friends. Others experienced positive or neutral experiences due to lockdown restrictions. This study highlights the diversity of needs among autistic children and calls for a personalised approach to transition support beyond the pandemic as one way of supporting autistic children to develop positive peer relationships. Lay abstract Research shows that moving schools can be a challenging time for autistic children and young people. One factor that has been found to support successful transition is friendships. However, there is little research exploring how transition between schools affects autistic children's friendships, and even less on how children's relationships during transition have been impacted by COVID-19. Fourteen parents of autistic children and young people were interviewed about their child's move to a new school and the impact they felt this had on their friendships. Parents described how moving with existing friends helped some children to find the transition less challenging. Others had differing experiences, with their children's friendships playing a much smaller role in the move. Differences were also seen with regard to the impact of COVID-19, with some parents speaking of how hard being away from friends was for their child, while others found the social restrictions a welcome break from interacting with peers. The study highlights how different the experiences of autistic individuals, and their parents, can be and the importance of a child-centred approach to transition support.

Handedness has been studied for association with language-related disorders because of its link with language hemispheric dominance. No clear pattern has emerged, possibly because of small samples, publication bias, and heterogeneous criteria across studies. Non-right-handedness (NRH) frequency was assessed in N = 2503 cases with reading and/or language impairment and N = 4316 sex-matched controls identified from 10 distinct cohorts (age range 6-19 years old; European ethnicity) using a priori set criteria. A meta-analysis (Ncases  = 1994) showed elevated NRH % in individuals with language/reading impairment compared with controls (OR = 1.21, CI = 1.06-1.39, p = .01). The association between reading/language impairments and NRH could result from shared pathways underlying brain lateralization, handedness, and cognitive functions.

The current study investigated whether prosocial behavior and emotional problems, peer problems, conduct problems, and hyperactivity and inattention problems were long-term longitudinally and bidirectionally related at inter- and or intra-individual levels from early childhood through mid-adolescence. Parents in the United Kingdom reported their child's prosocial behavior and multidimensional psychopathology at ages 3, 5, 7, 11, and 14 years (N = 16,984, 51% male, 83% White). Four random intercepts cross-lagged panel models were fitted. Higher levels of earlier prosocial behavior were associated with greater than expected decrements in psychopathology. At an intraindividual, within-person level, prosocial behavior was negatively bidirectionally associated with peer, conduct, and hyperactivity and inattention problems. Also at an intraindividual, within-person level, prosocial behavior was unidirectionally protective against emotional problems. At an interindividual level, prosocial behavior and each dimension of psychopathology were negatively associated. Therefore, engaging in prosocial behavior can reduce psychopathological symptoms over time (and vice versa), and youth who are more prosocial also tend to experience fewer psychopathological symptoms. Intraindividual associations were small while interindividual associations were moderate to large. Implications for theory, future research, and evidence-based interventions are discussed.