Small carnivores, such as the Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul), play important ecological roles but remain poorly studied in many parts of their range, particularly in landscapes undergoing rapid human-induced change. We investigated Pallas’s cat occupancy and activity patterns in Bogd Khan Mountain, north-central Mongolia, in relation to habitat features, camera-detectable potential prey activity, and anthropogenic disturbance. Camera traps were deployed from April to August over three years. Because detections were sparse and the survey was not specifically designed for Pallas’s cats or their primary prey, we used occupancy-based framework and interpreted covariate relationships as tentative ecological associations. Mean predicted occupancy across site-year sampling units was 0.31 ± 0.08 SE, and detection probability varied among years. The best-supported model included a positive association between occupancy and the relative abundance index of Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), a camera-detectable, forest-associated potential prey species. However, squirrel relative abundance may indicate opportunistic prey, broader prey availability, or favorable forest microhabitat. Although forest cover was not supported as a key occupancy covariate, most detections occurred at forested sites, indicating that Pallas’s cats occur within the heterogeneous forest-steppe landscape of the mountain. We detected no strong occupancy response to the anthropogenic disturbance covariates considered, including human activity, livestock activity, dog presence, and distance to urban areas. Activity records suggested moderate to high temporal overlap with squirrels, livestock, people, and free-ranging dogs. Our findings provide evidence of continued occurrence in a protected area facing increasing anthropogenic pressure and highlight the need for targeted monitoring.

Prey-predator interactions across time and space strongly influence many animal communities. This study unveils the first insights into the ecology of the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in Mongolia, and specifically in Bogd Khan Mountain Strictly Protected Area. We used by-catch data obtained from camera traps to analyze activity patterns and potential interactions with mammalian predators. Red squirrels exhibited primarily diurnal activity with occasional nocturnal forays, while potential predators like foxes (Vulpes vulpes, Vulpes corsac) and martens (Martes foina, Martes zibellina) displayed cathemeral and nocturnal patterns, respectively. The diurnal Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) showed the greatest activity overlap with squirrels. Suggesting predator avoidance behavior potentially mediated by olfactory cues, squirrel activity was negatively impacted by marten presence, which was in turn potentially affected by human disturbance. We highlight the need for further investigations, particularly regarding the dietary composition of Pallas's cats in forested habitats and the broader ecological implications of human disturbance on predator-prey dynamics within this crucial conservation area.

The reed vole Alexandromys fortis is a small herbivorous species primarily inhabiting open meadows in northern and central Eurasia. While the reed vole population in Mongolia is classified as least concern, there are limited information available about this species. To address this knowledge gap, a s urvey was conducted in the Khonin Nuga region of West Khentey, along the Yeroo River in Northern Mongolia, to assess the physical characteristics and population structure of reed voles. Over the course of a 12-year study, the reed vole population exhibited significant oscillations. Notably, the species demonstrated strong sexual dimorphism, with males consistently displaying larger size than females among all individuals measured. Fur-thermore, an imbalanced sex ratio was observed, with a greater number of males present both in the captured individuals (male-to-female ratio of 1.19:1) and the adult samples (male-to-female ratio of 1.45:1).

A comprehensive investigation of small mammal populations was conducted at the ecological research station situated in Khonin Nuga, located in the upper reaches of the Eroo River within the West Khentey Mountains, spanning a duration of 14 years, from 2000 to 2013. The methodology employed encompassed both pitfall trapping and mark-recapture live trapping techniques. The findings documented the presence of seven distinct species, comprising six soricids and one Crocidura. Noteworthy among the soricids were Sorex caecutiens, Sorex daphaenodon, and Sorex isodon, which exhibited the highest levels of abundance, with Sorex roboratus also being frequently captured. Conversely, species such as Sorex minutissimus, Sorex tundrensis, and Crocidura shantungensis were comparatively less abundant, with sporadic or singular occurrences. Estimates of species diversity, derived through the rarefaction method, revealed a species richness of 7, aligning closely with the empirical data amassed throughout the survey period. The analysis further revealed that three predominant shrew species were consistently observed across all major habitats under scrutiny. Specifically, S. caecutiens, S. daphaenodon, and S. isodon exhibited heightened capture rates within the floodplain meadows and both dark and light coniferous forest plots, respectively. Among the less common species, discernible habitat preferences emerged; for instance, S. roboratus demonstrated a propensity for open grass bog plots, while S. minutissimus exhibited a preference for rocky slopes. Additionally, Crocidura shantungensis displayed a predilection for southern steppe slopes. Sparse instances of S. tundrensis were documented within the confines of small floodplain meadows along tributaries of the Eroo River.

A range-wide phylogenetic/phylogeographic study of the three-toed jerboas of the genus Stylodipus is conducted using the mitochondrial cytb gene and fragments of several nuclear genes. The genus has been believed to include three species: S. telum (W Central Asia, SE Europe), S. andrewsi (E Central Asia), and S. sungorus (Dzungar basin). Our data support the dichotomy between S. andrewsi and the other taxa forming S. telum species group. Within the latter, both mtDNA and nuclear loci indicate a species-level divergence between S. telum and the S. t. birulae lineage (Zaisan depression, NE Kazakhstan), previously considered a subspecies of S. telum and here elevated to full species. S. sungorus is recovered as a close sister group to S. birulae on the basis of nuclear data but clustered with S. telum in the mitochondrial tree. The latter taxon is the most variable and includes two closely related eastern and western sublineages, separated by the Volga-Ural sands and joined by a more divergent S. t. karelini lineage (E Kazakhstan). The observed mitonuclear discordance is hypothesized to occur due to mtDNA introgression resulting from hybridization between S. sungorus and S. t. karelini, which highlights the important role of reticulations in the evolution of Dipodidae.

Five-toed jerboas of the subfamily Allactaginae comprise several complex taxa occurring over a wide distribution range covering a large part of the Eurasian arid belt. In this study, we employed current methods of molecular phylogenetics based on 15 nuclear genes and the mitochondrial gene cytb to revise relations and systematics within Allactaginae. We also applied species distribution modelling projected on paleo-environmental data to reconstruct the geographic patterns of speciation in Allactaginae. We elucidated the intergeneric relationships within this subfamily and clarified interspecies relations within the genus Scarturus. Moreover, our results demonstrate the species status of S. caprimulga; outline the currently understudied diversity within Orientallactaga, Allactaga, and Pygeretmus; and improve the divergence estimates of these taxa. Based on our results from modelling of geographic range fragmentation in allactagines, we suggest the dating and location of speciation events and present hypotheses regarding general habitat niche conservatism in small mammals.

The biology of the grey red-backed vole (Myodes rufocanus) in Khonin Nuga, Mongolia is concerning taxonomy, morphology, distribution, and natural history, were reviewed. The species showed territorial and low migration behavior. It inhabits open areas as well as forests, mainly feeds on green plants. The sex ratio is unbalanced: there are more males both in the general and in adult population. Analysis indicates correlation in both sexes. (Myodes rufocanus) is sexually dimorphic, with males being significantly longer than females in all measured individuals while females being often heavier than males. The study was conducted at 5 types of habitats during months of August for 14 years when it’s peak density usually occurrs. In Khonin Nuga of West Khentey, grey red-backed vole (Myodes rufocanus) often show regular fluctuations of abundance in 5-year period. Монгол орны баруун Хэнтийн, Хонин нуга дахь ойн хүрэн оготно (Myodes rufocanus) -ын популяцын бүтэц Хураангуй: Баруун Хэнтийн Хонин Нуга орчмын Ойн хүрэн оготно (Myodes rufocanus)-ын морфологи, популяцын бүтэц, амьдрах орчны судалгааг хийв. Энэ зүйл нь Хонин нугад түгээмэл Хус-Шинэс бүхий холимог ойн амьдрах орчныг илүү шүтэн тархсан зүйл юм. Судалгаа хийсэн зарим жилүүдэд популяцын хүйсийн харьцаа тэнцвэргүй байсан насны бүлгийн хувьд бие гүйцсэн бодгалиудад популяцын дийлэнх нь эр амьтад давамгайлах шинжтэй байсан. Бие гүйцсэн эр, эм бодгалийн морфологийн үзүүлэлт дээр түшиглэсэн хамаарлын шинжилгээний утга нь ялгаатай байдлыг харуулж байна. Ойн хүрэн оготнын морфологийн үзүүлэлт нь хүйсийн хувьд ялгаатай бөгөөд эр бодгаль нь биеэр урт боловч эм бодгалиас бага жинтэй байв. Харин эм бодгаль нь ихэвчлэн эрээсээ илүү жинтэй байна. Бид судалгааны талбай сонгохдоо амьдрах орчны олон янз байдлыг төлөөлөх газрыг хамруулж алаг өвст нуга, шугуй, уулын хуурай өвөр энгэр, ой зэрэг ялгаатай орчинд 2000-2013 онд нийт 14 жил 8-р сард сонгосон нийт 10 талбайд судалгааг жижиг хөхтөн амьтны зуны үржлийн үе, үржлийн дараах үеийг тохиолдуулан популяцын тоо толгой харьцангуй нэмэгдсэн үетэй давхцуулан сонгож хийсэн. Түлхүүр үгс: Ойн хүрэн оготно, оготно, популяцын бүтэц, популяцын динамик, хүйсийн диморфизм

Most of the molecular taxonomic studies on the Eurasian long-eared bats (Plecotus) are based on mitochondrial data only, which might lead to erroneous assessment of the phylogenetic relationships. Here, the genetic divergence among the Mongolian species of Plecotus is examined using sequences of two nuclear introns (THY and ABHD11) and the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Both mitochondrial and nuclear data support the existence of three species: Plecotus ognevi, P. kozlovi, and P. turkmenicus. The status of the latter taxon was unclear, as it was previously known from a single record in Mongolia. In our study, P. turkmenicus is found to be widely distributed across the hyperarid deserts south of the Altai Mountains. In several locations, it is sympatric with P. kozlovi, the distribution of which is associated mostly with the semidesert zone, while P. ognevi occurs in the steppe and forest zones of northern Mongolia. The two desert species (P. kozlovi and P. turkmenicus) are quite similar in their morphology and ecological affinities; however, the molecular data clearly show that P. turkmenicus is highly divergent from both P. kozlovi and P. ognevi. In contrast, the mtDNA difference between the arid-dwelling P. kozlovi and the morphologically distant forest-steppe P. ognevi is low. This result demonstrates that more than one lineage of Plecotus independently developed adaptations to the arid habitats of Central Asia and suggests that the morphological similarity between P. kozlovi and P. turkmenicus is a result of convergence. The difference in mtDNA between the Mongolian and West-Central Asian populations of P. turkmenicus indicates that the former may represent a separate taxon of uncertain rank.

The mole vole subgenusEllobiusis currently considered to include three species:Ellobius talpinus(distributed from SE Europe and Turkmenistan through Kazakhstan to SW Siberia),Ellobius alaicus(S Tianshan, Pamir-Alay) andEllobius tancrei(East and West Central Asia, from the Amu-Darya to Mongolia and N China). A study focusing on the genetic variation inEllobiusfrom Mongolia was conducted using one mitochondrial and three nuclear markers. Two divergent allopatric lineages endemic to East Central Asia were revealed. The first lineage occurs from Dzungaria eastwards to central Mongolia and representsE. tancreisensu stricto. The second lineage is found in East Gobi only and corresponds to a taxon described asEllobius orientalis, which has been traditionally treated as a subspecies ofE. tancrei. However, molecular and chromosome data indicate thatorientalisis related not toE. tancreibut toE. talpinus, which is separated from the former by a distribution gap of ~2,000 km. The taxonomic status of the East Gobi mole vole is ambiguous, and its genetic distance fromE. talpinuss. str. falls into the range characteristic for closely related vole species or semi-species. According to molecular estimates, the two taxa have been isolated since the late Middle Pleistocene. A similar divergence is observed between the East and West Central Asian lineages ofE. tancrei. E. alaicusis placed as sister to the latter renderingE. tancreisensu lato paraphyletic. The revealed phylogeographic pattern implies that East Central Asia was colonized by mole voles through multiple eastward dispersal events.

The Midday jird Meriones meridianus sensu lato is a widely distributed and highly variable species complex, whose taxonomy is still controversial despite several genetic and morphological studies. Dzungaria is a crucial region for understanding the phylogeny and phylogeography of this species complex. In this work, the genetic variation of M. meridianus in Dzungaria and adjacent areas was studied based on mitochondrial (Cytb) and nuclear (BRCA1 and IRBP) genes. To compare morphological and genetic differentiation among lineages, craniological variation of the genotyped specimens was examined. Moreover, environmental data were used to estimate the most probable dispersal routes of M. meridianus clades in the studied area. Three clades of M. meridianus with interspecific level of differentiation were found and treated as distinct species: M. psammophilus (Milne-Edwards, 1871); M. meridianus (Pallas, 1773); and M. penicilliger (Heptner, 1933). The distribution ranges of all three species overlap in Dzungaria. According to the molecular data, M. psammophilus and M. meridianus are sister taxa that diverged ca. 500 kya, while M. penicilliger separated from the common ancestor of the other two lineages ca. 800 kya. These three species have significantly different cranial measurements. Moreover, traces of hybridization between M. psammophilus and M. meridianus were detected, but not between M. penicilliger and the other two species. Finally, the dispersal scenarios for M. psammophilus, M. meridianus, and M. penicilliger are herein discussed. It is suggested that M. meridianus and M. penicilliger independently colonized Dzungaria from the west via Dzungarian gates.

In the present paper, we clarify the genetic structure and taxonomy of six vole species occurring in Mongolia including Microtus mongolicus, M. maximowiczii, M. limnophilus, Eolagurus luteus, E. przewalskii and Lagurus lagurus based on the sequence data of cytochrome b and three nuclear genes. All available genetic data indicate that M. mongolicus includes two divergent genetic lineages, which should be recognized as distinct species: M. mongolicus (East Mongolia, Khentii) and M. alpinus (Khangai and adjacent areas). Both M. maximowiczii and M. limnophilus are represented in Mongolia by specific haplogroups of the intraspecies level. Nuclear, mitochondrial and chromosomal data support strong differentiation between Eolagurus luteus and E. przewalskii.