Mikania micrantha (Asteraceae: Eupatorieae), widely called mile-a-minute, has been a persistent problem to forestry, plantations and biodiversity conservation in southwestern and northeastern India, as well as in Andaman and Nicobar islands. To supplement the previously imported Trinidad-originating Puccinia spegazzinii (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae), a different pathotype (IMI 393076) was imported from Peru, South America, after obtaining the import permit from the Plant Protection Advisor to the Government of India. The Peruvian pathotype was held in the National Containment-cum-Quarantine Facility for Transgenic Planting Material at ICAR–National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in New Delhi as a quarantine organism for pre-release evaluation. Screening of M. micrantha populations from Andaman and Nicobar islands (12), Assam (15) and Kerala (3) indicated their complete susceptibility to the Peruvian pathotype. In the host-specificity tests, the rust could not infect any of the 25 plant species in ten tribes within Asteraceae, which confirmed its safety to non-target plant species. Further, none of the 31 sunflower cultivars/accessions screened were infected.

This chapter focuses on the history and current status of the regulatory mechanisms and other initiatives in India that relate to preventive and related measures for invasive alien plants. The emphasis is on prevention because this is the most cost-effective means of reducing the threats of these invasive alien species. Naturally, much of this is embedded in or stems from the country's general regulatory framework development and actions. Lastly, the chapter outlines the need for a national strategy on IAS. However, as the national regulatory framework has, by necessity, needed to harmonize with some binding international agreements and conventions that contain provisions on regulation, a brief overview of these is given first.

The mile-a-minute weed, Mikania micrantha, is a highly problematic and widespread invasive weed in the moist forests of the Western Ghats and in the north-eastern states in India causing significant damage to natural forests as well as to plantation crops, including tea, coffee, bamboo, coconut and teak. The microcyclic rust fungus, Puccinia spegazzinii, was identified as a potential classical biological control agent to replace the unsustainable or even hazardous conventional control methods. Following a successful risk analysis under quarantine at CABI (UK), a pathotype of the fungus (IMI 393067) from Trinidad and Tobago was imported into India. Prior to its release in the open field, the rust was further evaluated under strict quarantine conditions to ascertain the susceptibility of M. micrantha populations from three regions in India where the weed is invasive, and to confirm the safety of economically important plant species and indigenous flora. Results of host-specificity screening of 90 plant species belonging to 32 families ensured that the Trinidadian pathotype of P. spegazzinii was highly host- specific and could not infect any of the test plant species, though it was highly pathogenic to most of the target weed populations from Assam, Kerala and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The rust was released in Assam and Kerala but failed to establish at the time. However, due to the apparent success of this rust at controlling M. micrantha in the Pacific region, further releases in India are recommended.

In order to prevent inadvertent introduction of exotic pathogens in India, 31 fungi and one bacterium were intercepted in crop germplasm belonging to 26 species from 21 countries during 2011. A number of economically important pathogens, not yet reported in India (Phomopsis longicolla); having more virulent races (Bipolaris maydis, Puccinia helianthi); wide host range (B. sorokiniana, Fusarium solani, F. verticillioides and Macrophomina phaseolina); and pathogens from unrecorded hosts such as Cephalosporium maydis on Capsicum annuum; Bipolaris sorghicola on Solanum lycopersicum and Raphanus sativus; F. verticillioides on Arachis duranensis, Calopogonium mucunoides, Calotropis ensiformis and Stylosanthes viscosa; M. phaseolina on Aeschynomene falcata; Periconia circinataon C. annuum and Phoma glomerata on C. mucunoides were intercepted and infected/contaminated samples were salvaged prior to release. Therefore, salvaging of the infected/contaminated material is of paramount importance to release pest-free material for biosecurity in the country.

Alternaria alternata is a well known and economically important seed-borne pathogen with very wide host range. Thirty-eight isolates derived from various hosts from different geographical regions in India including few exotic isolates from Taiwan, Syria and Argentina were used in the study. The molecular characterization using two marker systems i.e. universal rice primers (URP) and inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) was carried out, which revealed differences based on geographical origin of various A. alternata isolates, which otherwise could not be revealed through conventional characterization. Out of 13 URPs and 20 ISSR primers screened, 5 primers from each marker gave very good reproducible banding patterns. Polymorphism bands ranged between 88.1–100.0% in URP-PCR, whereas it was 100% in case of ISSR-PCR. Maximum heterozygosity (Hn) was revealed by URP 2F and URP 6F (0.29) and least by URP 4R (0.24). In ISSR-PCR, maximum heterozygosity was revealed by ISSR 13 (0.27) followed by ISSR 18 (0.25) and least by ISSR 6 (0.20). Maximum cophenetic correlation was found in ISSR (r = 0.789) followed by URP (r = 0.759). The combined analysis of both marker systems showed high cophenetic correlation (r = 0.810), which indicated a good fit of the data for diversity analysis. The study revealed that to best of our knowledge this is a first report to use of URP-PCR combined with ISSR-PCR and is more sensitive and reliable in characterizing genetic diversity in A. alternata.

A simple modified hand-made needle technique for obtaining pure cultures directly from a mixed population of fungi was developed which resulted in purification of several seed-borne fungal species producing exogenous macrospores on seeds of different crops within a minimum possible time viz., Alternaria, Bipolaris, Botrytis and Cercospora Pure cultures of other species of fungi producing fruiting bodies or sclerotia like Botryodiplodia, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Leptosphaeria, Phomopsis, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia and Sclerotium through selective picking of single fruiting body or sclerotia. In this modified technique, frequency of isolation in pure form ranged from 50.0 (Corynespora cassicola) to 87.5 per cent (Bipolaris halodes and B. oryzae each), whereas, in fungi producing fruiting bodies or sclerotia, frequency of obtaining pure cultures ranged between 37.5 (Colletotrichum graminicola) to 100.00 per cent (Leptosphaeria sacchari). This modified technique may be useful for quick isolation of specific group of fungi even from their mixed population on seeds.

Quarantine processing of 305 457 samples of 116 crop species and their wild relatives introduced from 51 countries during the period 2007-2010 led to the interception of 54 pathogens of quarantine significance. These interceptions included pathogens not known to occur in India, or those that possess physiologic races or have a wide host range or reported to cause considerable economic losses. This emphasizes the need to conduct a critical examination of the introduced planting material for minimizing the risk of introduction of exotic pathogens or more virulent races into the country.

International exchange of planting material of medicinal plants germplasm has a significant role in crop improvement programmes as it provides a wide genetic diversity available world wide. However, exchange of the planting material carries an inherent risk of introducing new exotic pathogens/ more virulent races into new areas. Plant quarantine is a government endeavour enforced through legislative measures to regulate the introduction of seeds and planting materials, in order to prevent inadvertent introduction of pests, pathogens and weeds harmful to the agriculture of a country/state/region and if introduced, prevent their establishment and further spread.

A large number of germplasm and trial material of oilseed crops are being introduced each year to develop better crop varieties. There is always an inherent risk of introduction of a new pathogen(s) or race(s) or virulent strain(s) into the country along with such imports. During 1999–2008, a total of 10,450 germplasm samples of different species of oilseed crops viz., brassicas, crambe, linseed, safflower, sesame, soybean and sunflower were imported from several countries. Seed health testing of these samples for quarantine clearance resulted in the detection of pathogenic fungi in 1,300 samples which included - Alternaria brassicae, A. brassicicola, Botrytis cinerea, Phoma lingam in Brassica spp.; A. brassicicola in Crambe spp.; B. cinerea, Fusarium solani, Puccinia carthami in Carthamus spp.; Cercospora kikuchii, Colletotrichum dematium, F. oxysporum, F. solani, Macrophomina phaseolina, Peronospora manshurica in Glycine spp.; A. helianthi, P. helianthi in Helianthus spp.; A. lini in Linum spp.; A. sesami, C. sesami, M. phaseolina, Rhizoctonia bataticola in Sesamum spp. and a bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris in Brassica spp. Significance of interception of pathogenic fungi and the bacterium is discussed.

A tetradentate nitrogen donor [N4] macrocyclic ligand, 1,3,7,9-tetraaza-2,8-dithia-4,10-dimethyl-6,12-diphenylcyclododeca-4,6,10,12-tetraene has been synthesized by using thiourea and benzoylacetone. Complexes of Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), and Cu(II) have been synthesized with this ligand and characterized by element chemical analysis, molar conductance, magnetic susceptibility, mass, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform-infrared, electronic, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectral studies. The molar conductance measurements of Mn(II), Co(II), and Cu(II) complexes in dimethyformamide correspond to nonelectrolytes, whereas Ni(II) complex is a 1: 2 electrolyte. The complexes are high-spin except for Ni(II) which is diamagnetic. Octahedral geometry has been assigned for Mn(II) and Co(II) complexes, square planar for Ni(II) and tetragonal geometry for Cu(II). The ligand and its complexes were screened in vitro against two pathogenic fungi (Fusarium moniliformae and Rhizoctonia solani) and bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) to assess their growth inhibiting potential.

Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes have been synthesized with 22 and 24 membered tetramide macrocyclic ligands viz; 1,9,12,20-tetraaza-2,8,13,19-tetraone-5,16-dithiacyclodocosane [L(1)] and 1,9,13,21-tetraaza-2,8,14,20-tetraone-5,17-dithiacyclotetracosane [L(2)] and characterized by elemental analysis, molar conductance, magnetic susceptibility measurements, mass, IR, electronic EPR spectral studies and electrochemical properties. The molar conductance of all the complexes in DMSO solution is corresponding to 1:2 electrolyte. Thus these complexes may be formulated as [M(L')]Cl(2) [where M = Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) L' = L(1) and L(2)]. On the basis of spectral studies a distorted octahedral geometry has been assigned for all the complexes. The ligands and their complexes were also screened in vitro against two pathogenic fungi (F. moniliformae and R. solani) to assess their growth inhibiting potential.

espanolEl proceso de cuarentena de 6398 muestras de plasma germinal de pimienta (Capsicum spp.) introducidas entre 1976 y 2005 dio como resultado la identificacion de 16 hongos patogenos. Entre los hongos identificados de alto significado economico y listados como transportados por semillas de Capsicum spp. se incluyen Cercospora capsici, Colletotrichum capsici, C. gloeosporioides (tel. Glomerella cingulata), C. acutatum, Phomopsis capsici (tel. Diaporthe phaseolorum), Fusarium solani, Macrophomina phaseolina y Verticillium albo-atrum, asi como otros patogenos fungicos respecto de los cuales Capsicum no es un cultivo huesped, como Alternaria zinniae, Diplodia sp., Drechslera halodes, D. longirostrata, D. maydis, D. rostrata, D. sorghicola y D. sorokiniana. Algunos de los hongos identificados tienen una muy amplia serie de huespedes. Se mencionan los paises de origen del plasma germinal y los hongos identificados, y se debate acerca de la significacion economica de las especies importantes. EnglishQuarantine processing of 6398 pepper (Capsicum spp.) germplasm samples introduced during 1976--2005 resulted in the identification of 16 pathogenic fungi. Among the identified fungi, those of high economic significance and listed as seed-bome in Capsicum spp. induded: Cercospora capsici, Colletotrichum capsici, C. gloeosporioides (tel. Glomerella cingulata), C. acutatum, Phomopsis capsici (tel. Diaporthe phaseolorum), Fusarium solani, Macrophomina phaseolina and Verticillium albo-atrum, as well as other fungal pathogens for which Capsicum is a non-host crop, such as Alternaria zinniae, Diplodia sp., Drechslera halodes, D. longirostrata, D. maydis, D. rostrata, D. sorghicola and D. sorokiniana. Sorne of the identified fungi have a very wide host range. Countries of origin of the germplasm and fungi identified are presented, and economic significance of the important species are discussed. Key words: Capsicum, germplasm, India, quarantine francaisParmi 6 398 echantillons de materiel genetique de poivre (Capsicum spp.) soumis a une procedure de mise en quarantaine durant la periode 1976--2005, 16 champignons pathogenes ont ete identifies dont certains ont une grande importance economique et sont classes parmi les moisissures vehiculees par les semences chez Capsicum spp. : Cercospora capsici, Colletotrichum capsici, C. gloeosporioides (tel. Glomerella cingulata), C. acutatum, Phomopsis capsici (tel. Diaporthe phaseolorum), Fusarium solani, Macrophomina phaseolina et Verticillium albo-atrum, ainsi que d' autres pathogenes fongiques pour lesquels Capsicum n'est pas une plante hote tels que Alternaria zinniae, Diplodia sp., Drechslera halodes, D. longirostrata, D. maydis, D. rostrata, D. sorghicola et D. sorokiniana. Certains des champignons identifies ont un spectre d'hotes tres large. Les pays d' origine du materiel genetique et les champignons identifies sont presentes et l'impact economique des especes importantes est discute.

Quarantine processing of 1,48,917 samples of seeds and other planting material of various agri-horticultural crops imported during 2005–2006 resulted in the interception of 34 fungi and one bacterium. These interceptions included pathogens of quarantine significance, viz., Peronospora manshurica, a fungus not known to occur in India; Tilletia foetida and Botrytis cinerea with a limited geographical distribution in the country; Drechslera maydis and Phoma lingam which are known to possess physiological races; Colletotrichum dematillm, Drechslera sorokiniana, Fusarium moniliforme. F. solani and Macrophomina phaseolina with wide host range and other pathogens reported to cause significant economic losses e.g. Alternaria brassicicola, A. sesame, A. padwickii, A. radicina, Verticillium alboatrum and Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. etc. Economic significance of pathogens intercepted is discussed and the need to conduct a thorough and critical seed health testing during quarantine processing for safer introduction of planting material is emphasized.