Changes in grain trading between Russian Far Eastern ports and North America in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to introductions of Lymantria dispar asiatica (Vnukovskij), formerly called the Asian gypsy moth (AGM), and the recognition of a new pathway for its transport. Unlike the pathways commonly used and regulated for commodities and for packaging material containing pest organisms, this presented a unique pathway for AGM. Vessels departing from the Russia Far East transiting to ports on the west coast of the United States (US) and Canada (CA) were infested with life stages of AGM and related species. Upon arrival in North America, eggs oviposited on the surfaces of the ships and its cargo hatched with larvae ballooning to vegetation surrounding port areas leading to the potential establishment of AGM populations. A multi layered monitoring and inspection program was developed to mitigate this risk of introduction, initially for Russian Far Eastern ports, and eventually to include specified areas of other Asian countries. In this article, we summarize and review the integral parts of this mitigation program, which include: risk assessments, AGM monitoring in foreign and domestic ports, vessel cleaning and certification by a government Plant Protection Organization (PPO) or its proxy, AGM surveillance, and eradication of introduced AGM in ports and other areas within the United States and Canada.The uniqueness of this program is characterized by its complexity, which involves coordinated efforts of PPOs, the use of various inspection organizations, and the support of ocean transportation industries.

In the fall of 2009, the first confirmed North American detection of the European grapevine moth (EGVM) Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermuller) occurred in Napa County, California, USA. Based on its status as a significant grape pest in other parts of the world, the establishment of EGVM in California presented significant production and export issues for grapes, as well as for other fresh market agricultural commodities. Over the following seven years, an intensive California state-wide survey and area-wide eradication campaign was undertaken in partnership with agricultural officials at local, state and federal levels, university scientists and the wine, table grape and raisin industries. These efforts resulted in a dramatic decline in moth captures in pheromone traps from over 100 000 moths in 2010, to one in 2014, and none in 2015. In August of 2016, eradication was declared for all previously infested areas in California. The decision to pursue the eradication effort was based on the limited host range and geographic area of the EGVM infestation, the availability of effective tools for monitoring and control, and the strong support of the affected grape production and export industries. The eradication campaign employed coordinated logistical, regulatory, and technical efforts that included: 1) state-wide-monitoring using a network of pheromone-baited traps and in field monitoring; these findings were recorded in a geographic information system that was used to regularly communicate survey results to programme officials; 2) an area-wide application of mating disruption dispensers to infested vineyards, including use in urban environments within infested zones; 3) implementation by coordinators of area-wide insecticide treatments with application timing determined by degree-day modelling for each infested region; 4) a robust regulatory programme that initiated and maintained a quarantine of infested areas that regulated movement of fruit, farming equipment and winery processing waste; 5) an extensive outreach programme to grape growers, wineries, pest control specialists and the public; 6) formation of a technical working group that provided recommendations to the operational programme. An extensive methods development effort supported the programme. This included developing enhanced detection methods for vineyards under mating disruption, testing efficacy and residual control of insecticides, testing mating disruption formulations, evaluating the impacts of winery processing methods on EGVM mortality, developing methods to determine the timing of the development of successive EGVM generations (or biofix) under California conditions to improve degree-day models, developing EGVM rearing methods, testing the quality of pheromone lures and trap monitoring; and a spatial analysis of trapping data to determine programme effectiveness and to analyse invasion pathways.

BACKGROUND:Moths of genus Dendrolimus (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) are among the major pests of coniferous forests worldwide. Taxonomy and nomenclature of this genus are not entirely established, and there are many species with a controversial taxonomic position. We present a comparative evolutionary analysis of the most economically important Dendrolimus species in Eurasia.RESULTS:Our analysis was based on the nucleotide sequences of COI and COII mitochondrial genes and ITS2 spacer of nuclear ribosomal genes. All known sequences were extracted from GenBank. Additional 112 new sequences were identified for 28 specimens of D. sibiricus, D. pini, and D. superans from five regions of Siberia and the Russian Far East to be able to compare the disparate data from all previous studies. In total, 528 sequences were used in phylogenetic analysis. Two clusters of closely related species in Dendrolimus were found. The first cluster includes D. pini, D. sibiricus, and D. superans; and the second, D. spectabilis, D. punctatus, and D. tabulaeformis. Species D. houi and D. kikuchii appear to be the most basal in the genus.CONCLUSION:Genetic difference among the second cluster species is very low in contrast to the first cluster species. Phylogenetic position D. tabulaeformis as a subspecies was supported. It was found that D. sibiricus recently separated from D. superans. Integration of D. sibiricus mitochondrial DNA sequences and the spread of this species to the west of Eurasia have been established as the cause of the unjustified allocation of a new species: D. kilmez. Our study further clarifies taxonomic problems in the genus and gives more complete information on the genetic structure of D. pini, D. sibiricus, and D. superans.

Mating disruption, the broadcast application of sex-attractant pheromone to reduce the ability of insects to locate mates, has proven to be an effective method for suppressing populations of numerous moth pests. Since the conception of mating disruption, the species-specificity and low toxicity of pheromone applications has led to their consideration for use in area-wide programs to manage invasive moths. Case histories are presented for four such programs where the tactic was used in the United States: Pectinophora gossypiella (pink bollworm), Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth), Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth), and Lobesia botrana (European grapevine moth). Use of mating disruption against P. gossypiella and L. botrana was restricted primarily to agricultural areas and relied in part (P. gossypiella) or wholly (L. botrana) on hand-applied dispensers. In those programs, mating disruption was integrated with other suppression tactics and considered an important component of overall efforts that are leading toward eradication of the invasive pests from North America. By contrast, L. dispar and E. postvittana are polyphagous pests, where pheromone formulations have been applied aerially as stand-alone treatments across broad areas, including residential neighborhoods. For L. dispar, mating disruption has been a key component in the program to slow the spread of the infestation of this pest, and the applications generally have been well tolerated by the public. For E. postvittana, public outcry halted the use of aerially applied mating disruption after an initial series of treatments, effectively thwarting an attempt to eradicate this pest from California. Reasons for the discrepancies between these two programs are not entirely clear.

European gypsy moth populations (Lymantria dispar L.) are well established and a proven destructive force in hardwood trees throughout the United States and Canada. Introduction of the exotic Asian gypsy moth into North America would be even more impactful, as Asian gypsy moth populations have wider host ranges, and are capable of naturally dispersing more rapidly due to female flight ability. To support early detection and exclusion of Asian gypsy moth, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) uses molecular techniques to screen moths trapped in North America for evidence of common Asian genotype. In order to strengthen U.S. domestic capacity to screen moths quickly and efficiently, we report a real-time PCR assay for this pest. A probe system using TaqMan 5' nuclease chemistry is reported for detection of an allele associated with common Asian gypsy moth genotypes. The targeted allele is located at the nuclear FS1 locus currently used by the USDA in conventional PCR tests to screen for evidence of Asian gypsy moth introductions or introgression. The diagnostic probe is successfully multiplexed with a conserved 18S probe system to detect reaction failure due to poor sample quality or quantity. The specificity, sensitivity, and repeatability of the FS1-18S multiplex real-time PCR assay were tested on laboratory-reared and field-collected moths to demonstrate diagnostic utility. Implications of the new assay as a screening tool for evidence of Asian gypsy moth introgression and introduction are discussed.

Characterizing the current population structure of potentially invasive species provides a critical context for identifying source populations and for understanding why invasions are successful. Non‐native populations inevitably lose genetic diversity during initial colonization events, but subsequent admixture among independently introduced lineages may increase both genetic variation and adaptive potential. Here we characterize the population structure of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar Linnaeus), one of the world's most destructive forest pests. Native to Eurasia and recently introduced to North America, the current distribution of gypsy moth includes forests throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere. Analyses of microsatellite loci and mitochondrial DNA sequences for 1738 individuals identified four genetic clusters within L. dispar. Three of these clusters correspond to the three named subspecies; North American populations represent a distinct fourth cluster, presumably a consequence of the population bottleneck and allele frequency change that accompanied introduction. We find no evidence that admixture has been an important catalyst of the successful invasion and range expansion in North America. However, we do find evidence of ongoing hybridization between subspecies and increased genetic variation in gypsy moth populations from Eastern Asia, populations that now pose a threat of further human‐mediated introductions. Finally, we show that current patterns of variation can be explained in terms of climate and habitat changes during the Pleistocene, a time when temperate forests expanded and contracted. Deeply diverged matrilines in Europe imply that gypsy moths have been there for a long time and are not recent arrivals from Asia.

The Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis , is considered to be one of the most serious invasive pests of deciduous trees in North America. An efficient monitoring trap is needed to detect and delimit new introductions and assess population densities of established infestations. Previous studies on A. glabripennis have shown that males produce a two-component aggregation pheromone that consists of a 1:1 blend of 4-( n -heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-( n -heptyloxy)butanal. Moderate attraction in field trapping studies suggested that there may be additional chemical cues missing. Volatiles from male A. glabripennis were examined to identify other potential pheromone components. Gas chromatographic / electroantennographic (GC/EAD) analyses of male aerations detected a consistent EAD-active response to a previously unidentified compound. This compound was identified as (3 E ,6 E )-α-farnesene. Both male and female beetles were antennally responsive to this sesquiterpene, and both sexes were attracted to it in olfactometer bioassays at different doses. When (3 E ,6 E )-α-farnesene was combined with 4-( n -heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-( n -heptyloxy)butanal, attraction of both sexes increased compared to assays using 4-( n -heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-( n -heptyloxy)butanal alone.

The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), is a serious invasive pest of North American ash (Fraxinus spp.) that has caused devastating mortality since it was first identified in North America in 2002. In 2012, we conducted field trapping assays that tested the efficacy of purple prism and fluon-coated green multifunnel (Lindgren funnel) traps. Traps were baited with combinations of several lures that were previously shown to be attractive to A. planipennis: manuka oil--a sesquiterpene-rich oil, (3Z)-hexenol--a green leaf volatile, or (3Z)-dodecen-12-olide [= (3Z)-lactone], a sex pheromone. Eighty-nine blocks (trap lines) were tested throughout nine states along the outer edges of the currently known A. planipennis infestation in North America. Trap catch was highest on fluon-coated green multifunnel traps, and trap detections at sites with low A. planipennis population density ranged from 72 to 76% for all trap and lure types tested. (3Z)-hexenol and (3Z)-lactone baited traps functioned as well as (3Z)-hexenol and manuka oil-baited traps. Independent of the lure used, detection rates on green fluon-coated multifunnel traps were comparable with glued purple prism traps in areas with low A. planipennis population densities.

The spectral sensitivity of the compound eye in three gypsy moth species from six different geographical regions (Lymantria dispar asiatica Vnukovskij [Asian gypsy moth], Lymantria dispar japonica Motschulsky [Japanese gypsy moth], and Lymantria dispar dispar L. [North American gypsy moth]) was tested electrophysiologically in the wavelength region 300D700 nm. For all moths examined, a maximum response occurred in the 480D520-nm range (blue-green region) with a shoulder peak occurring at 460 nm. A smaller, secondary peak was observed for both sexes at the 340D380-nm range, which is in the region considered behaviorally maximal in night-flying insects. No peaks in sensitivity were observed between 520 and 700 nm (red region) for any of the moths tested. Based on our retinal recording data, a short wavelength blocking filter with a transition wavelength near 500 nm should reduce gypsy moth attraction to artificial lighting sources. This would help reduce the number of Lymantria-infested ships traveling to and from foreign ports.

Recent advances in nanoscale bioreplication processes present the potential for novel basic and applied research into organismal behavioral processes. Insect behavior potentially could be affected by physical features existing at the nanoscale level. We used nano-bioreplicated visual decoys of female emerald ash borer beetles (Agrilus planipennis) to evoke stereotypical mate-finding behavior, whereby males fly to and alight on the decoys as they would on real females. Using an industrially scalable nanomolding process, we replicated and evaluated the importance of two features of the outer cuticular surface of the beetle's wings: structural interference coloration of the elytra by multilayering of the epicuticle and fine-scale surface features consisting of spicules and spines that scatter light into intense strands. Two types of decoys that lacked one or both of these elements were fabricated, one type nano-bioreplicated and the other 3D-printed with no bioreplicated surface nanostructural elements. Both types were colored with green paint. The light-scattering properties of the nano-bioreplicated surfaces were verified by shining a white laser on the decoys in a dark room and projecting the scattering pattern onto a white surface. Regardless of the coloration mechanism, the nano-bioreplicated decoys evoked the complete attraction and landing sequence of Agrilus males. In contrast, males made brief flying approaches toward the decoys without nanostructured features, but diverted away before alighting on them. The nano-bioreplicated decoys were also electroconductive, a feature used on traps such that beetles alighting onto them were stunned, killed, and collected.

Field assays were performed to determine the optimal color for Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) traps. Previous studies have found that more A. planipennis are caught on purple or green traps than traps of other colors. In three studies, we evaluated various shades of purple, wavelengths of green (500-570 nm), and greens of different reflectance (from 9 to 66%). In all tests, traps of corrugated plastic in standard, commercially available purple (currently used to survey A. planipennis) and a customized green color were used as bases for comparison. Among purple traps, a paint color previously shown to be generally attractive to buprestids caught significantly more A. planipennis adults than traps coated with paints containing more blue or red, or traps constructed of the standard purple plastic. Among traps with maximum reflectance at varying green wavelengths, those ranging in wavelength from 525 to 540 nm caught significantly more adult A. planipennis than traps of other wavelengths. In the 530-540 nm range of the electromagnetic spectrum, there was no significant difference among traps in the 23-66% reflectance range, but traps painted with a peak reflectance of 49% caught more beetles than purple or the custom green plastic traps. Male to female ratio was highest on green traps.

ABSTRACT Field assays were conducted in southeastern and south-central Michigan in 2011 and 2012 to optimize green and purple multifunnel (Lindgren funnel) traps for use as a survey tool for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire. Larger sized (12- and 16-unit) multifunnel traps caught more beetles than their smaller-sized (4- and 8-unit) counterparts. Green traps coated with untinted (white) fluon caught almost four times as many adult A. planipennis as Rain-X and tinted (green) fluon-coated traps and almost 33 times more beetles than untreated control traps. Purple multifunnel traps generally caught much lower numbers of A. planipennis adults than green traps, and trap catch on them was not affected by differences in the type of coating applied. However, trap coating was necessary as untreated control purple traps caught significantly less beetles than traps treated with Rain-X and untinted or tinted (purple) fluon. Proportions of male beetles captured were generally much higher on green traps than on purple traps, but sex ratios were not affected by trap coating. In 2012, a new shade of purple plastic, based on a better color match to an attractive purple paint than the previously used purple, was used for trapping assays. When multifunnel traps were treated with fluon, green traps caught more A. planipennis adults than both shades of purple and a prism trap that was manufactured based on the same color match. Trap catch was not affected by diluting the fluon concentration applied to traps to 50% (1:1 mixture in water). At 10%, trap catch was significantly lowered.

ABSTRACT Field assays were conducted in southeastern and south-central Michigan in 2011 and 2012 to optimize green and purple multifunnel (Lindgren funnel) traps for use as a survey tool for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire. Larger sized (12- and 16-unit) multifunnel traps caught more beetles than their smaller-sized (4- and 8-unit) counterparts. Green traps coated with untinted (white) fluon caught almost four times as many adult A. planipennis as Rain-X and tinted (green) fluon-coated traps and almost 33 times more beetles than untreated control traps. Purple multifunnel traps generally caught much lower numbers of A. planipennis adults than green traps, and trap catch on them was not affected by differences in the type of coating applied. However, trap coating was necessary as untreated control purple traps caught significantly less beetles than traps treated with Rain-X and untinted or tinted (purple) fluon. Proportions of male beetles captured were generally much higher on green traps than on purple traps, but sex ratios were not affected by trap coating. In 2012, a new shade of purple plastic, based on a better color match to an attractive purple paint than the previously used purple, was used for trapping assays. When multifunnel traps were treated with fluon, green traps caught more A. planipennis adults than both shades of purple and a prism trap that was manufactured based on the same color match. Trap catch was not affected by diluting the fluon concentration applied to traps to 50% (1:1 mixture in water). At 10%, trap catch was significantly lowered.

The current emerald ash borer survey trap used in the United States is a prism trap constructed from a stock purple corrugated plastic. In recent years, several colors (particularly shades of green and purple) have been shown to be more attractive to the emerald ash borer than this stock color. Our goal was to determine if plastics produced with these colors and incorporated into prism traps can improve and serve as a new alternative to plastics already in use for the emerald ash borer survey. The plastics were tested in moderate to heavily infested areas in Michigan in two initial studies to test their effectiveness at catching the emerald ash borer. Because results from studies performed in heavily infested sites may not always correspond with what is found along the edges of the infestation, we compared trap catch and detection rates (recording at least one catch on a trap over the course of the entire trapping season) of several trap types and colors at sites outside the core of the currently known emerald ash borer infestation in a nine-state detection tool comparison study. Two of the new plastics, a (Sabic) purple and a medium-dark (Sabic) green were incorporated into prism traps and tested alongside a standard purple prism trap and a green multifunnel trap. In areas with lower emerald ash borer density, the new purple (Sabic) corrugated plastic caught more beetles than the current purple prism trap, as well as more than the medium-dark green (Sabic) prism and green multifunnel traps. Sabic purple traps in the detection tools comparison study recorded a detection rate of 86% compared with 73, 66, and 58% for the standard purple, Sabic green, and green multifunnel traps, respectively. These detection rates were reduced to 80, 63, 55, and 46%, respectively, at low emerald ash borer density sites.

Surveillance using attractants for invasive species can allow early detection of new incursions and provide decision support to response programs. Simultaneous trapping for multiple species, by baiting traps with several lures, is expected to increase the number of species that can be targeted in surveillance programs and improve the cost-effectiveness without affecting surveillance coverage. We tested this hypothesis by choosing four potential forest and urban lepidopteran pest species that are present in Europe but not yet in New Zealand and many other countries. We deployed traps in central and southern Europe with single lures or all possible species combinations (up to four lures per trap). There was only limited interference, apparently due to trap saturation, but no evidence for interspecific repellency among lures for gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa, and pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana. To assess what factors may be important in species compatibility/suitability for multiple-species trapping, we combined our results with those of previous studies conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture. For 75 combinations of pheromones, tested singly or in combination, 19 % showed no effect on trap catch for any of the species tested. In the other cases, either one or both species showed a reduction in trap catch. However, few lure combinations caused complete or nearly complete suppression. For most combinations, catches were still sufficiently high for detection purposes. Species from the same superfamily exhibited more interference than more distantly related species. Together, these results suggest that there are opportunities to improve the range of exotic pests under surveillance, at little additional cost, by multiple-species trapping for which compatibility has been demonstrated.

Trapping approaches developed for the emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), were adapted for trapping several European oak buprestid species. These approaches included the use of natural leaf surfaces as well as green and purple plastic in sticky trap designs. Plastic surfaces were incorporated into novel branch-trap' designs that each presented two 5x9-cm(2) rectangular surfaces on a cardboard structure wrapped around the leaves of a branch. We used visual adult Agrilus decoys in an attempt to evoke male mating approaches toward the traps. Our first experiment compared the attractiveness of visual characteristics of the surfaces of branch-traps. The second looked at the effect on trap captures of adding semiochemical lures, including manuka oil, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, and (Z)-9-tricosene. In total, 1962 buprestid specimens including 14 species from the genus Agrilus were caught on 178 traps in a 22-day time-span. Overall, the green plastic-covered branch-traps significantly out-performed the other trap designs. We further found that the presence of an EAB visual decoy placed on the trap surface often increased captures on these green traps, but this effect was stronger for certain Agrilus species than for others. The visual decoy was particularly important for the most serious pest detected, Agrilus biguttatus Fabricius, which was captured 13 times on traps with decoys, but only once without a decoy. There were some small but significant effects of odor treatment on the capture of buprestids of two common species, Agrilus angustulus Illiger and Agrilus sulcicollis Lacordaire. There were also 141 Elateridae specimens on these traps, which were not influenced by trap type or decoys. The results suggest that small branch-traps of this nature can provide a useful new tool for monitoring of buprestids, which have the potential to be further optimized with respect to visual and olfactory cues.

A new emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) ectoparasitoid species, Spathius galinae Belokobylskij & Strazanac (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae), is described from the Russian Far East and South Korea. Molecular evidence supports that Russian and Korean specimens represent a single species and are closely related to two Asian species (S. agrili and S. generosus) that belong to the S. exarator species group. The morphological variation of adult S. galinae and its immature stages, distribution, life history, and relation to similar Asian Spathius species are discussed. The distribution of the new species may indicate this is one of the more cold hardy emerald ash borer parasitoids. A brief review of hymenopteran parasitoids of emerald ash borer and new host record, the first for Atanycolus nigriventris Vojnovskaja-Krieger (Braconidae: Braconinae), is reported.

Sirex noctilio was discovered in North America in New York, USA in 2004. The woodwasp has the potential to damage pine forest resources if it is not controlled. Sirex has been managed with varying degrees of success in pine plantations throughout the Southern Hemisphere using biological control. The most successful control agent is the "Kamona strain" of the nematode, Deladenus (=Beddingia) siricidicola. The technology for mass rearing and applying the nematode has been developed through many years of research in Australia. Thus, implementing a biological control program in North America seemed at first to be a simple matter of technology transfer. This has proved not to be the case because of environmental factors that both affect and are affected by use of the nematode. The first set of factors includes climate and the discovery of an indigenous strain of D. siricidicola. Climate may affect the overwinter survival and population increase of the nematode, as well as the timing of program operations, whereas the presence of another strain complicates nematode identification and, hence, the evaluation of effectiveness of the Kamona strain. In addition, strain hybridization may occur, potentially decreasing the efficacy of the Kamona strain. The second set of factors includes possible effects of the nematode on non-target North American siricids. As many as five species of native pine-feeding Siricinae potentially may be exposed to infection by the nematode when it is released.