Studies on biodiversity in Africa show its rapid loss and degradation. This is commonly explained with non-sustainable use by local people. Across Africa, extensive systems of protected areas (PAs) have been established to mitigate this trend. Creation of PAs, however, resulted in manifold conflicts with people who depend on the use of the PAs’ natural resources for their livelihoods. This study empirically analyzes gaps in knowledge and perceptions between conservationists 2 and pastoralists in Nech Sar National Park, Ethiopia, and suggests ways of integrating the knowledge systems into practices. Research techniques used are key informant interviews, focus group discussions and interviews with 60 sample households conducted between May 2010 and March 2011. Pastoralists who live inside the park describe changes in biodiversity by observing trends of important trees, grasses, and larger wild animals based on traditional ecological knowledge. Conservationists tend to rely on standard scientific methods and “expert” observations to evaluate temporal and spatial changes of biodiversity. The pastoralists relate biodiversity loss to the prohibition of their traditional land management practices by the park authorities. Conservationists rather take the local people’s increased and non-sustainable resource utilization as a cause. We argue that improved knowledge exchange and understanding can be generated through more participatory and transdisciplinary research which can contribute to the development of innovative management approaches for the park that deter integrates local peoples’ livelihood needs.

In the tropics, environmental constraints such as drought limit forage supply, and thus livestock production and competitiveness of livestock systems. Forage conservation technologies could mitigate the dry season feed problems but their adoption in smallholder systems has so far been low. The present work, carried out in Honduras, examined factors that influenced the uptake of promoted silage technologies in order to derive suggestions for further R&D interventions. A total of about 250 farmers participated in training sessions and field days. Information was gathered using interviews with 222 participants.Maize and sorghum were the most common crops (>60%) used for silage making, with grass being ensiled to a limited extent. All silo types were used (mean of approximate to 2 silos/farm) with earth and heap silos being most widely accepted. Financial and farm resources, farmers' education, extension continuity and intensity, and the presence of key innovators, motivated farmer groups and favourable milk market conditions contributed to increased adoption. The most common reasons for non-adoption were the lack of a chopper (small and medium farms), silage too expensive (medium farms) and silage not needed (large farms). Extension strategies need to be adapted to specific conditions to efficiently support a sustainable forage and livestock development process. Continuous promotion can lead to significant and sustained adoption with subsequent potential benefits for more smallholders via increased locally available know-how and easier access to machinery and markets.

India is one of the leading countries in the world in terms of the wealth of traditional knowledge systems related to the use of plants. The country possesses a huge indigenous knowledge on harvesting, storage and usage of medicinal and aromatic plants, which has been gathered over centuries. Because they are both a local health commodity and also expected to meet the growing world demand, medicinal plant species experience high pressures due to over-collection from the wild. At the same time, traditional knowledge on the uses of wild plants is declining rapidly due to a lack of awareness and the spread of allopathic medicine. The majority of Indian medicinal plants recorded come from Uttarakhand, a state located in the central Himalaya. The region shows a high diversity of landscapes and microclimates, which counts for its rich biodiversity. Its largely rural population shows a wide cultural diversity, with communities of high ethnological interest. As a result, local authorities have appreciated the importance of developing a dynamic market of medicinal and aromatic plants. In the last five years, ambitious initiatives are in place aiming to support the sector by means of inventories, conservation, capacity building, training of small-scale farmers and certification. The project uses a variety of qualitative research tools and herbarium collections in order to inventorize the wild plant resources used in traditional medicine and food in the districts of Garhwal, Uttarakhand. Investigations take place on the role, value, diversity and potential of wild plant resources. Based on direct observations and interviews, the project aims to assess challenges and market opportunities for the utilisation of indigenous knowledge and biodiversity as a way of improving the livelihoods of underprivileged communities in the hilly regions of the state. The results will be a contribution towards the completion of the full inventory of medicinal plants of the state and will be an input for the promotion of the wild plant sector by governmental and non-governmental agencies that work directly with farmers in the region.

Although it is widely recognised that multipurpose forage crops can play an important role in improving the environmental and socio-economic sustainability of smallholder production systems in fragile environments, adoption of especially legumes has been generally low. However, a participatory research effort in Honduras showed that forage legumes had a good potential to be accepted especially by poor farmers when, amongst soil fertility enhancement and fodder production, food security was addressed as well. About 150 farmers with different levels of resource endowment representing the typical maize and beans based agricultural system of central Honduras conducted over 100 experiments in their own fields with grasses, shrubs and leguminous crops (mainly several varieties of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata). Around half of the participating farmers were women. The choice of research methods and parameters was determined simultaneously by both farmers and researchers. Dichotomous logistic regression models were used to examine the variables influencing the inclusion of feed, food and soil fertility as objectives on the one hand and determining the factors influencing adoption on the other. Poorer farmers at high altitudes were 43 % more likely to include food production as an objective of forage crops than richer farmers in lower areas. Full or semi landownership increased the chance of food production as main objective by 31 %. Farmers using inputs like fertiliser were significantly less likely to include food production as an important objective for forage crops. Cowpea was identified as the most promising forage legume. Reasons for continuing growing cowpea in the next growing season were its use as a food at household level, its perceived potential as a cash crop and its ability to improve soil fertility (increasing the chance of cowpea to be adopted by 38%, 37% and 53 % respectively). Results also indicate that farmers tend to amplify in more income oriented issues once food security has been achieved. For instance, fodder (hay, silage) and livestock production can be developed as an important farm component to offer a valuable potential for intensification and income generating opportunities (market linkage).

Multipurpose forage crops can play an important role in improving the environmental and socioeconomic sustainability of smallholder production systems in fragile environments. In the framework of a research implemented by CIAT and embedded in the BMZ /GTZ supported project “Participatory selection and strategic use of multipurpose forage germplasm in Central American hillsides”, around 150 poor farmers in 15 communities in the department of Yoro, central Honduras, conducted more than 200 experiments in their own fields with several grasses, leguminous crops and shrubs. A systemic approach was employed, in which the choice of methods and parameters was determined simultaneously by both farmers and researchers. The trials took place in three different agro-ecological zones related to altitude in 2002 and 2003. Grasses (Brachiaria brizantha 26610 “Toledo”, Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum spp. “Camerún” and “King Grass”) performed well in more than 80 % of the experiments, without being significantly affected by altitude or rainfall. Performance of legumes (Lablab purpureus, Vigna unguiculata, Canavalia ensiformis and brasiliensis) varied. Farmers assessed the results of 55 % of the trials as good or acceptable. Food security being the primary concern turned out to be the main criterion for the assessment of the new technologies. For instance, in the case of Vigna positive opinions were based on yield, use as food, feed, to enhance soil fertility and its drought resistance (all p < 0.05). A significant negative aspect was susceptibility to pests. Leguminous shrubs — mainly represented by Cratylia argentea showed in 75 % of the cases disappointing results. Since the plant is very much liked for its characteristics (high quality fodder, leaves covering the soil improving soil fertility and maintaining soil humidity, firewood), farmers continue experimenting with Cratylia in collaboration with researchers. In combination with the provision of adequate information and a systematic follow-up, farmers were able to assess (new) forage based technologies properly when given the possibility to experiment freely. Valuable feedback has been provided to on-station research whereas at the same time many farmers have been motivated to become involved in the research process.

Many regions in developing countries are characterised by deteriorating biophysical conditions such as erosion, loss of soil fertility and deforestation, resulting in diminishing resources and decreasing yields. Multipurpose forage based technologies can play an important role in improving the environmental and socio-economic sustainability of smallholder production systems, for instance by improving soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, increasing animal production through improved feed, and controlling weeds. Species that are widely adapted, productive and palatable have been identified, but farmer adoption has been low. One explanation for low adoption rates is that too much emphasis has been placed on supply-driven research with little participation of farmers. With the involvement of national research institutes and non-governmental organisations as well as the University of Hohenheim, CIAT implemented a BMZ/GTZ supported project on participatory research on selection and strategic use of multipurpose forage germplasm in Central American hillsides. Within the framework of this project, research procedures were developed for identifying, testing and evaluating multipurpose forage based technologies with farmers. In the department of Yoro, central Honduras, farmers in 12 communities conducted experiments with different types of multipurpose forages like grasses, leguminous cover crops and shrubs in three different agro-ecological zones during a period of 18 months. The experimenting farmers were differentiated according to their farming systems and resource endowment such as cattle ownership. The research procedure consisted of farming system analysis, problem identification and prioritisation, formulation of research objectives, implementation and evaluation of experiments, which were carried out using participatory methods and based on farmers’ demand. Farmers’ decision-making, learning, and experimenting were central to the research. Methodological insight into the applicability of participatory methods for research with multipurpose forage based technologies was obtained. Furthermore, a range of suitable forages for small farmers, especially for those living at high altitudes, were identified. Results indicate that different interest groups require different approaches in order to enhance adoption of multipurpose forage based technologies.