Properly following fire-extinguishing procedures is crucial in emergencies, reducing injury risk and potentially saving lives. Traditional training, however, is often costly, time-consuming, and logistically demanding. Extended reality (XR) can address these barriers by offering safe, repeatable, and engaging simulations. Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) is a widely used XR approach and is most effective when it closely replicates real conditions and equipment. To increase realism, many systems shift toward Immersive Augmented Virtuality (IAV), using tangible objects, such as a real extinguisher fitted with sensors, as interactive controllers. This article reports a two-phase, between-groups study with 62 participants comparing IVR training with a virtual extinguisher to IAV training with a custom physical controller providing rich haptic feedback. Phase one examined knowledge gains and perceived usability; phase two assessed skill transfer, workload, and emotional responses. Findings suggest extinguisher controller can enhance knowledge acquisition and skill transfer effectiveness, offering an embodied training experience.

Geography education increasingly requires planetary-scale reasoning but teachers often lack tools to make abstract concepts—such as the greenhouse effect—accessible to young learners. This study evaluates AcademIa of ARistarchus, an artificial intelligence/augmented reality (AR) hybrid serious game developed through design-based research (DBR) that positions planetary geography as a pedagogical lens. By extending core geographical concepts into planetary contexts, the tool helps students understand Earth as a complex system. A purposive panel of six experts evaluated the prototype through a structured walkthrough informed by adapted game user experience satisfaction scale and handheld augmented reality usability scale, semi-structured interviews, and a targeted review of documented misconceptions. Initial quantitative feedback using a 5-point Likert instrument showed consistent agreement (above 4.0) across engagement, usability, and perceived learning value. Qualitative findings indicated that comparative planetology—contrasting Earth, Venus, and Mars—makes the greenhouse effect more tangible, while AR visualisations address key challenges related to scale. The rule-based feedback agent, Aristarchus, further supports conceptual change by diagnosing misconceptions. Expert feedback led to concrete refinements, including improved instructional videos. Overall, the study proposes a transferable model for scaffolding macroscale spatial reasoning and operationalising comparative analysis as a mode of geographical inquiry. Rather than claiming definitive effectiveness, this formative evaluation demonstrates how DBR-driven expert review can systematically inform design prior to classroom implementation, offering a replicable protocol for technology-enhanced geography interventions. Highlights: • Conceptualises planetary geography as a lens for comparative atmospheric studies. • Implements a hybrid DBR model integrating AR visuals and a tutoring agent. • Provides a validated protocol for scaffolding macroscale spatial reasoning.

The integration of Extended Reality (XR) into industrial training has shown significant potential in enhancing learning experiences. However, its application in the paper printing industry remains largely unexplored, with existing research either lacking empirical validation or focusing on simplified, modular tasks. This study presents PaperXR, an immersive Virtual Reality (VR) application designed for training operators of industrial paper printing machinery. Developed under the XR2Learn project, PaperXR represents a focused, applied contribution to an under-studied industrial niche. While immersive VR simulations and structured instructional design frameworks are well-established in other manufacturing sectors, their rigorous application to the paper printing industry remains scarce. Rather than introducing fundamentally new XR interaction techniques, PaperXR applies known immersive training principles to provide a high-fidelity simulation of a complex Man Roland 700 offset printing machine, focusing on integrated quality control processes that mirror real-world industrial workflows. Learning experience is systematically designed using the XR2Learn-ID model, which integrates the established ASSURE and TPACK frameworks to ensure pedagogical soundness and optimize immersive learning. A between-groups study was conducted with vocational students and an industrial partner to evaluate PaperXR's effectiveness against traditional training methods. Results indicated that participants using PaperXR demonstrated significantly improved task performance in a real-world setting, with enhanced engagement, knowledge retention, and practical skill application. The findings confirm the value of a pedagogically structured, high-fidelity immersive VR approach for effectively training operators in the specific and complex context of the paper printing industry.

As smart cities strive for resilience and inclusivity, design education must equip future professionals with the skills to address diverse user needs. Universal Design (UD) promotes accessibility for all, yet traditional teaching often lacks the depth to foster true empathy for disabled individuals. This study investigates the use of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) as a tool for enhancing design education. Design students engaged in an accessibility-focused redesign task after either receiving traditional lecture-based instruction or undergoing an immersive VR simulation replicating mobility limitations. Results indicate that VR participants tended to identify more accessibility issues and proposed more inclusive solutions. By bridging theory and embodied experience, immersive education appears to support the development of socially-aware designers.

Inclusive design aims to create products, environments, and systems that accommodate the needs of diverse users, including individuals with visual impairments. This paper investigates the potential of virtual reality (VR) as a tool for fostering empathy and enhancing accessibility awareness among design students. Three instructional methods were compared: traditional lecture-based training, desktop VR simulations, and immersive VR experiences. Participants were engaged in a redesign task, identifying and addressing accessibility flaws in a graphical interface. The results indicate that immersive VR enhanced empathy, improved design performance, and supported better knowledge retention compared to non-immersive and traditional approaches. By enabling students to experience visual impairments firsthand, VR emerged as a powerful educational tool, bridging the gap between theory and practice in inclusive design.

Extended Reality (XR) technologies have increasingly been adopted to enhance visitor engagement and promote the sustainability of Cultural Heritage (CH) sites. While XR interventions have proven effective in enriching historical narratives and improving visitor experiences, they often face challenges such as fragmented management, technological biases, and limited integration within existing visitor pathways. This study presents a holistic approach to designing and implementing XR interventions at the Roman Houses of the Celio Hill, a historically significant yet under-visited CH site in Rome. By incorporating a Design Thinking framework, Three-Act narrative design, and urban analysis, the proposed methodology ensures a seamless integration of XR technologies within pre-visit, on-site, and post-visit activities. The study explores how strategic XR implementation can improve site visibility, diversify visitor engagement, and address operational challenges posed by multiple stakeholders managing neighboring sites. Findings highlight the importance of balancing immersion, cognitive load, emotional engagement, and interaction while preserving the authenticity of cultural content. The results offer insights into designing sustainable, long-term XR interventions that enhance visitor experiences while contributing to the broader resilience of CH sites.

This paper presents PaperXR, an Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) training application designed to replicate complex industrial workflows for enhanced workforce training. Developed within the framework of the XR2Learn project, PaperXR integrates realistic 3D environments, interactive elements, and realtime data feedback to simulate operational conditions closely mirroring those of actual production settings. Special attention was given to making interactions within the immersive VR environment as close to reality as possible, enhancing user engagement and skill transfer. Evaluation was conducted in two phases: initially, expert employees assessed the application for realism and training utility, followed by trials with nonexpert trainees focusing on usability and learning effectiveness. The results demonstrate PaperXR's potential to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical skills, providing a safe, scalable, and engaging platform for on-the-job training. This work highlights the benefits of IVR technologies in vocational education and sets a foundation for further integration of realtime operational data in training simulators contributing to both sustainability and resilience of industrial operations.

The convergence of Virtual Reality (VR), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoT) offers transformative potential across numerous sectors. However, existing studies often examine these technologies independently or in limited pairings, which overlooks the synergistic possibilities of their combined usage. This systematic review adheres to the PRISMA guidelines in order to critically analyze peer-reviewed literature from highly recognized academic databases related to the intersection of VR, AI, and IoT, and identify application domains, methodologies, tools, and key challenges. By focusing on real-life implementations and working prototypes, this review highlights state-of-the-art advancements and uncovers gaps that hinder practical adoption, such as data collection issues, interoperability barriers, and user experience challenges. The findings reveal that digital twins (DTs), AIoT systems, and immersive XR environments are promising as emerging technologies (ET), but require further development to achieve scalability and real-world impact, while in certain fields a limited amount of research is conducted until now. This review bridges theory and practice, providing a targeted foundation for future interdisciplinary research aimed at advancing practical, scalable solutions across domains such as healthcare, smart cities, industry, education, cultural heritage, and beyond. The study found that the integration of VR, AI, and IoT holds significant potential across various domains, with DTs, IoT systems, and immersive XR environments showing promising applications, but challenges such as data interoperability, user experience limitations, and scalability barriers hinder widespread adoption.

Integrating Extended Reality (XR) technologies into Cultural Heritage (CH) sites enhances visitor engagement, increases site visibility, supports sustainable management, and facilitates the preservation and accessibility of cultural content. While these benefits are widely recognized, their application is particularly critical in complex urban environments such as Rome, where major, internationally known monuments often overshadow a vast network of smaller, yet historically significant, sites. In these contexts, XR technologies are not only vital for animating spaces with few surviving artifacts or those difficult to reconstruct, but also for boosting the visibility and appreciation of lesser-known heritage locations. Furthermore, given the operational constraints typical of CH sites, such as conservation requirements, restricted access, and limited budgets, XR solutions offer the added advantage of reducing interpretive and exhibition costs while enabling more flexible and sustainable forms of public engagement. This work presents such a case study: the Bottega space of the Roman Houses on the Celio Hill, where XR technologies, combined with photogrammetry, 3D graphics, and 3D printing, have been deployed to overcome the challenges of limited physical remains, enhance visitor experience, communicate the cultural significance of space, and optimize resource use.

The study investigates the integration of Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLEs) in academic teaching through the EU-funded "REVEALING" project. Researchers from Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Poland, and Portugal developed and evaluated five different immersive VRLEs, each focusing on diverse educational topics, including ancient Greek technology, sea urchin measurements, linear algebra, and historical expeditions. The study aims to determine effective instructional design principles for VRLEs and assess students' acceptance and learning outcomes.The VRLEs were designed based on literature-derived principles that emphasise ease of tool usage, authentic experiences, and continuous feedback. Students from the participating universities explored these VR environments, providing feedback through a standardized questionnaire on aspects like immersion, ease of use, motivation, and emotions.Results show that most participants positively engaged with the VRLEs, reporting high motivation and positive emotional responses, particularly for experiences involving interactivity. However, challenges like motion sickness and technical issues were noted, especially at one institution. The findings suggest that immersive VR experiences can significantly enhance motivation and engagement, but their effectiveness depends on careful alignment with pedagogical goals, design quality, and user experience considerations.

Museums have long been spaces of wonder and discovery, but as technology evolves, so do the ways we engage with these cultural treasures. The design of adaptive virtual environments becomes essential to maintaining user interest and relevance. In this paper, an adaptive virtual museum system is proposed that explores the use of virtual reality (VR), artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) as well as semantics to personalize and optimize virtual exhibition experiences. Based on the results of our previous research conducted regarding the possible combination of VR, AI and IoT (AIoT) for the design of innovative intelligent systems in different domains, our current work proposes a novel way to integrate all these technologies within the domain of cultural heritage (CH), a combination that remains relatively underexplored. The proposed framework, which is currently a work in progress, introduces new ways to modeling museums’ visitor behavior and preferences (mainly by using head-mounted displays (HMDs)) in a VR environment to dynamically adapt exhibition layouts, as well as to provide personalized content through a digital twin (DT) of a real museum. A key focus lies in intelligent user profiling and route/layout optimization to enhance visitor engagement and provide rich content through integration of Large Language Models (LLM). Although implementation is ongoing, this paper describes the conceptual design, core objectives, and anticipated impact on the broader scope of adaptive multimedia applications and personalized cultural experiences.

Properly following fire extinguishing procedures during fire incidents can be vital, reducing the risk of injuries and potentially preventing loss of life. However, fire extinguishing training can be both costly and time consuming. Virtual Reality fire extinguishing training applications aim to address these issues by providing simulated training, which has shown promising results. An important factor in the effectiveness of these applications is their correspondence to real-world training and the use of actual fire extinguishing equipment. To increase realism, such applications often move to the Augmented Virtuality spectrum, integrating real objects like fire extinguishers as custom controllers into the training experience. This paper presents the results of a comparative between-groups study evaluating the impact of using a purely virtual fire extinguisher versus a custom fire extinguisher controller on users' perceived usability and realism of a fire extinguishing training application. The study, conducted with 62 participants, highlighted the potential of using such solutions to increase knowledge acquisition but revealed no significant differences regarding usability and realism.

Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) became the primary space for education during the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) lockdowns. One of the additions that specifically VR has to offer is its potential to incorporate some of the qualities that define interpersonal communication and typically lack in distance-learning VLEs. This study's aim is exploration of those qualities to appreciate Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLEs) as a supplementary tool for distance learning and its impact on knowledge acquisition processes, with the particular objectives of evaluating usability, usefulness, and realism of Non-Verbal Cues (NVCs) capture. Toward this end a multi-user VRLE prototype was developed and utilized for the delivery of a live lecture by a real professor of a MSc programme. The professor's body motion and facial expressions were captured in real-time and solved onto a high-fidelity avatar. In total, a group of 20 students audited the lecture via the VRLE and evaluated the modalities and experience offered compared to conventional VLEs. Additionally, knowledge acquisition was directly correlated to another group of 20 students, who audited the same lecture only via conventional VLEs. Evaluation results provide important insight regarding the learning experience between the two settings and how incorporation of NVCs can have a positive impact.

The aim of this study is to investigate the contribution of cartographic results obtained from data acquired with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles to the management procedures of geoheritage monuments, specifically in geoeducation. 2D orthophotomaps and 3D textured meshes of a fossil site in the Lesvos Geopark, Greece, which has been monitored since 2018, were generated. The data recordings were collected using a UAV at different flight altitudes for three different cartographic scales. After acquiring UAV and Global Navigation Satellite Systems data, the resulting cartographic products were used to create educational material on geosites. This material was used to deliver lectures to students in various settings: (a) in situ at the Natural History Museum of the Lesvos Petrified Forest, (b) live in a traditional classroom, (c) remotely via e-class software, and (d) in a collaborative Virtual Reality environment. Feedback was provided by students through customized questionnaires, and their knowledge acquisition was assessed post-lecture with specially designed assignments. The final section of this work compares learning experiences and knowledge acquisition across these different environments. The results contribute to the debate on 2D and 3D cartography in geoeducation, quantifying the value of new materials in understanding spatial and geographic features and improving geoheritage management.

Face-to-face communication relies extensively on non-verbal cues (NVCs) which complement, or at times dominate, the communicative process as they convey emotions with intense salience, thus definitively affecting interpersonal communication. The capture, transference, and subsequent interpretation of NVCs becomes complicated in computer-mediated communicative processes, particularly in shared virtual worlds, for which there is growing interest both in regard to NVCs technological integration and their affective impact. This paper presents a between-groups experimental setup which is facilitated in immersive virtual reality (IVR), and examines NVCs effects on user experience, with special emphasis on degree of attention toward each NVC as an isolated controlled variable of a scripted performance by a virtual character (VC). This study aims to evaluate NVCs fidelity based on the capabilities of the motion-capture technologies utilized to address cue integration developmental challenges and examines NVCs impact on users' perceived realism of the VC, their empathy toward him, and the degree of social presence experienced. To meet the objectives set the affective impact of low-fidelity automated NVCs and high-fidelity real-time captured NVCs were compared. The findings of the evaluation suggest that although NVCs do impact user experience to an extent, their effects are notably more subtle compared to previous studies. Exploring the impact of non-verbal cues on user experience in immersive virtual reality.image

Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLEs) to empower education by providing immersive, interactive experiences that improve student engagement and learning outcomes. Our work aims at investigating VRLEs as a means for addressing the shortcomings of synchronous online education and supporting engaging and experiential learning activities in the context of higher education. We compare Desktop VR versus Immersive VR in synchronous, multiuser learning scenarios. Our field study has shown no significant differences with respect to the overall learning experience between the two experimental conditions although resulting in different levels of immersion.

Non-Verbal Cues (NVCs) add to communication effectiveness among individuals in both real and virtual world. Thus, NVCs transference between the two receives increased attention from both the industry and research community. Their efforts lead to sophisticated technological solutions which allow high fidelity NVCs to be transferred from real individuals to virtual characters/avatars, in real-time, adding to the communication effectiveness of both standalone Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) applications and Social Virtual Reality (SVR) platforms. That combination triggered the development of Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLEs), aiming at assisting students towards learning sign language and communicating through it in both virtual and real world. Still, technological limitations affect the quality of such learning and communication experience. This work presents the design, development, and evaluation of an SVR compatible system for sign language learning and communication in virtual worlds. The system considers lessons learned from previous studies and was used to create a VRLE mimicking learning and examination processes students of sign language follow in real life. The results of our study show that despite the appreciation of technological solutions efficiency towards NVCs transference, there are still several issues to be investigated to increase the effectiveness of communication through sign language in virtual worlds.

This work is a thorough account of virtual reality's (VR) historical change from vision to commodity. The technology's manifestations are organized into the pre-Sutherland era, beginning approximately in the 18th century, the post-Sutherland milestones of the 70s and the 80s, and the pop culture of the 80s and 90s that triggered its short-lived industrious rise, followed by a spectacular fall. Although the timeline of the evolution of the VR apparatus has been previously documented, little has been said regarding milestone continuity and how technological and market progression relate to the underlying forces that keep propelling VR's slow-burning development and cultural diffusion. Those forces aim toward the “ultimate display”; however, our analysis rejects this goal and examines how, instead, the VR experience has gradually developed.