Plants perceive light signals through photoreceptors such as CRY1 to regulate growth and development. It is well-known that Arabidopsis CRY1 is a nucleocytoplasmic protein that mediates light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation in the nucleus, but the mechanisms by which CRY1 regulates root growth and functions in the cytoplasm remain poorly understood. Here, we identified eIF3G1, a subunit of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3) complex, as a CRY1-interacting protein associated with light-regulated root development. Under blue light, eif3g1 mutants showed longer primary roots, whereas eIF3G1 overexpression reduced root elongation, accompanied by corresponding changes in root apical meristem size. Differential irradiation experiments indicated that shoot illumination is required for eIF3G1-dependent root phenotypes. Transcriptome analysis revealed changes in translation-related and light-responsive genes in response to eIF3G1 perturbation. Comparison with the cry1 transcriptome revealed overlapping differentially expressed genes, including BIC1 and BIC2, and the bic1 bic2 double mutant showed reduced root elongation. Together, these findings identify eIF3G1 as a CRY1-interacting factor that contributes to the shoot-dependent regulation of root growth under blue light, suggesting that eIF3G1 may be associated with the CRY1-dependent shoot-to-root regulation of root growth.

Enhancing crop stress tolerance to ensure global food security is one of the core challenges in agricultural science. Plants predominantly face biotic and abiotic stresses, to which they respond by activating finely regulated signal perception and transduction pathways, thereby improving their survival in adverse environments. The plant cytoskeleton, composed of microtubules and actin filaments, plays a pivotal role in this adaptive process. It functions both as a hub for integrating external stress signals and as a key regulator of downstream signaling and cellular responses. Upon stress, the cytoskeleton undergoes dynamic remodeling, a process driven mainly by microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) and actin-binding proteins (ABPs). This review systematically summarizes current knowledge on cytoskeletal remodeling in plants under environmental stress, particularly focusing on the functions and mechanisms of MAPs and ABPs in cytoskeletal remodeling. Furthermore, it outlines the regulatory network through which the plant cytoskeleton orchestrates stress adaptation.

Floral scent is a crucial quality trait in ornamental plants, yet research has been hampered by the lack of standardized sensory evaluation and the disconnect between genes, volatile compounds, and human perception. Hedychium is an excellent model for fragrance research due to its diverse fragrance types and rich volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles. This study establishes a sensory-omics framework to connect genetic pathways, VOC chemistry, and fragrance perception in Hedychium flowers. A multidisciplinary approach combined sensory panel analysis (developing a fragrance wheel), VOC profiling (HS-SPME-GC-MS and PTR-ToF-MS), transcriptomics, and functional characterization of key biosynthetic genes in 30 Hedychium accessions representing six fragrance types. Six distinct fragrance types were classified (e.g. strong floral, fruity), linked to specific VOC profiles (e.g. monoterpenoids, esters). PTR-ToF-MS validated rapid detection of key fragrance markers. Supervised partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) modeling of VOC signatures enabled fragrance-type classification and key variable selection. Transcriptomic analysis coupled with weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed two key gene modules-MEbrown (terpenoid-associated) and MEyellow (phenylpropanoid-associated)-that underlie fragrance variation. Functional validation through in vitro enzymatic assays and transient overexpression in tobacco leaves confirmed HcTPS1 as a eucalyptol synthase and HmBEAT1 as a benzyl acetate synthase. Collectively, these findings provide a comprehensive framework for Hedychium flowers, thereby elucidating the molecular and chemical basis of their sensory fragrance variation. The study delivers valuable genetic resources and a predictive model that establishes a foundation for the targeted breeding of floral fragrance in ornamental horticulture.

The NAC gene family is widely distributed in plants and plays essential regulatory roles in diverse biological processes, including growth, development, and responses to abiotic stresses. However, systematic characterization of the NAC gene family in Hedychium coronarium remains limited, and key members involved in inflorescence architecture formation and its regulatory divergence have not yet been clearly identified. In this study, we systematically identified members of the NAC gene family (HcNAC) in H. coronarium, characterized their features, and screened candidate genes potentially involved in the regulation of inflorescence architecture. A total of 149 NAC genes were identified in the H. coronarium genome, of which 126 were mapped to 17 chromosomes, while 23 were located on unanchored scaffolds. Phylogenetic analysis classified these genes into 16 subfamilies, and members within the same subfamily exhibited relatively high structural conservation. Promoter cis-acting element analysis revealed that HcNAC genes were enriched in hormone-responsive, light-responsive, and abiotic stress-related elements. Synteny analysis demonstrated that 85 HcNAC genes showed strong collinearity with NAC genes in Musa acuminata. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying different inflorescence types, morphological and cytological comparisons were performed between tubular and imbricate inflorescences. The results showed significant differences in bract arrangement, epidermal cell size, and adaxial - abaxial growth polarity, suggesting that variation in inflorescence architecture is closely associated with the coordinated regulation of cell division and cell elongation. Furthermore, integrated transcriptome differential expression analysis, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and qRT-PCR validation identified a candidate gene, HcNAC60. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that HcNAC60 is localized in the nucleus and exhibits strong transcriptional activation activity. Silencing of HcNAC60 significantly reduced bract angle and spacing in tubular inflorescences, while increasing bract width, indicating that HcNAC60 plays a crucial regulatory role in inflorescence architecture formation in H. coronarium. This study systematically elucidates the composition and characteristics of the NAC gene family in H. coronarium and identifies a key regulator of inflorescence architecture formation, HcNAC60, providing important insights and genetic resources for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying inflorescence development and for improving floral architecture in H. coronarium.

The Arabidopsis thaliana RIC1, a key member of the ROP (Rho GTPase of Plants)-Interactive CRIB motif-containing protein family, has been characterized as a plant-specific microtubule-associated protein. RIC1 is thought to function as a key downstream effector of the small GTPase Rho-of-Plant 6 (ROP6), orchestrating the formation of well-ordered cortical microtubule arrays and promoting the interdigitated growth pattern of cotyledon or leaf epidermal pavement cells. However, the precise physicochemical properties governing RIC1's function in microtubule organization regulation remain known. Here, we demonstrate that RIC1 is a predicted intrinsically disordered protein that forms biomolecular condensates, which promote the polymerization of microtubule bundles in vitro. In Arabidopsis cotyledon pavement cells, RIC1 forms distinct condensate-like puncta, with a specific subset associating directly with cortical microtubules. RIC1 self-assembles into distinct spherical condensates under in vitro macromolecular crowding conditions. Remarkably, these RIC1 condensates co-condense with tubulin in vitro. We further demonstrate that RIC1 condensates elevate the local tubulin concentration, correlate with enhanced microtubule nucleation, and promote the polymerization of microtubule bundles in vitro. Moreover, the growing microtubule bundles actively reshape these condensates. Thus, RIC1 condensates may provide a specialized microenvironment that enables tubulin sequestration while simultaneously regulating microtubule nucleation and polymerization in vitro. This study provides crucial insights into the biomolecular condensation properties of the microtubule-associated protein RIC1, establishing a groundwork for future investigations into its in vivo functional mechanisms.

The Phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein (PEBP) gene family plays a crucial role in plant growth and development, particularly in regulating flowering time and morphogenesis. However, the diversity, expression patterns, and functions of PEBP genes in Hedychium coronarium remain largely unexplored. In this study, 14 HcPEBP genes were identified and classified into MFT, FT, and TFL1 subfamilies based on phylogenetic analysis. Intraspecific collinearity analysis revealed three collinear relationships within the HcPEBP gene family. Interspecific collinearity analysis across H. coronarium, rice, wild banana, and pineapple highlighted the evolutionary significance of specific PEBP genes. Motifs DPDxP and GxHR are conserved in HcPEBPs, which are essential for anion-binding activity. At the same position in the C-terminus, FT-likes contain the xGxGGR motif, while TFL1-likes possesses the TAARRR motif. 64.3% of HcPEBP genes consist of four exons and three introns. Promoter regions of HcPEBP genes are enriched with light-responsive elements, suggesting a primary response to light signals. Expression patterns analysis by qRT-PCR showed that seven FT-like genes are predominantly expressed in leaves, with increased expression during the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth. HcPEBP11, a FT-like gene, is highly expressed in inflorescence buds. Overexpression of HcPEBP11 in tobacco induced early flowering, confirming its role in promoting flowering. This study provides a foundation for further research on the biological functions of the PEBP gene family in H. coronarium and elucidates the role of HcPEBP11 in flowering regulation.

Paralogous transcription factors (TFs) frequently recognize highly similar DNA motifs. Homodimerization can help distinguish them according to their different dimeric configurations. Here, by studying R2R3-MYB TFs, we show that homodimerization can also directly change the recognized DNA motifs to distinguish between similar TFs. By high-throughput SELEX, we profiled the specificity landscape for 40 R2R3-MYBs of subfamily VIII and curated 833 motif models. The dimeric models show that homodimeric binding has evoked specificity changes for AtMYBs. Focusing on AtMYB2 as an example, we show that homodimerization has modified its specificity and allowed it to recognize additional cis-regulatory sequences that are different from the closely related CCWAA-box AtMYBs and are unique among all AtMYBs. Genomic sites described by the modified dimeric specificities of AtMYB2 are conserved in evolution and involved in AtMYB2-specific transcriptional activation. Collectively, this study provides rich data on sequence preferences of VIII R2R3-MYBs and suggests an alternative mechanism that guides closely related TFs to respective cis-regulatory sites.

A distinct epigenetic feature of plants is the DNA methylation in non-CG contexts. Although the physiological roles of non-CG methylation have been elucidated, its direct impact on transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions remains largely unexplored. Focusing on WRKY-family TFs, here we investigated how non-CG methylation influences their DNA binding specificity and genome-wide cis-regulatory elements (CREs). By generating 461 SELEX and DAP-seq libraries for 54 AtWRKYs, we show that DNA methylation alters both monomeric and dimeric binding specificities of WRKYs, leading to an overall increase in specificity divergence among family members. We curated 201 WRKY motifs and clustered them into 11 classes, 5 of which represent previously unreported specificities. Notably, the known WRKY cis-element PRE4 was found to be recognized only when methylated. The comprehensive dataset of accurate WRKY motifs also enabled the identification of the amino acid discriminants of W-box and WT-box. Expanding on prior knowledge, we demonstrate that methylation not only decreases but can also increase the affinity of WRKYs. This bidirectional effect has globally reshaped the genomic binding landscape of WRKYs upon methylation. Finally, we constructed the WRKY Regulatory Code Database (https://transysbio.cn/WRKYRCDB.php) to facilitate data access.

Pyrethrum parthenium, a perennial herb from the genus Pyrethrum within the Asteraceae family, is known for its potent fragrance and significant economic value. Nevertheless, the mechanisms involved in the synthesis and regulation of its floral fragrance compounds remain unclear. This study used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to analyze the volatile compounds in five parts of P. parthenium: tubular flowers, ligulate flowers, sepals, receptacles, and leaves. The results showed that the volatile aromatic components include terpenes such as camphor, α-pinene, camphene, d-limonene, β-caryophyllene, and β-farnesene, with camphor being the main volatile compound. Based on the transcriptome data of tubular flowers of P. parthenium, a terpene synthase gene, PpTPS5, was identified. The results of both in vitro and in vivo enzymatic assays demonstrated that PpTPS5 functions as a bifunctional terpene synthase gene. The qRT-PCR results showed that the gene expression pattern of PpTPS5 is correlated with the release pattern of the corresponding terpene aromatic compounds in P. parthenium. Subcellular localization and inhibitor experiments indicated that PpTPS5 functions in the cytosol. Additionally, dual-luciferase and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) assays revealed that PpMYB9 can bind to the promoter of PpTPS5 to regulate the biosynthesis of terpenoids. In conclusion, the results of this study provide a theoretical basis for further exploration of the transcriptional regulation of terpene floral fragrance compounds in P. parthenium.

The synthesis of energetic BH 3 CN − anion polymers within the structure for propellant fuels aims to achieve high energy density, ultra-fast response, and unparalleled thermal stability in hypergolic materials.

High-temperature stress, also referred to as heat stress, often has detrimental effects on plant growth and development. Phytochromes have been implicated in the regulation of plant heat-stress responses, but the role of blue-light receptors, such as cryptochromes, in plant blue-light-dependent heat-stress responses remains unclear. We found that cryptochrome 1 (CRY1) negatively regulates heat-stress tolerance (thermotolerance) in Arabidopsis. Heat stress represses CRY1 phosphorylation. Unphosphorylated CRY1 exhibits decreased activity in suppressing the interaction of CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) with ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5), leading to excessive degradation of HY5 under heat stress in blue light. This reduction in HY5 protein levels subsequently relieves its repression of the transcription of HY5 target genes, especially the heat-shock transcription factors. Our study thus reveals a novel mechanism by which CRY1-mediated blue-light signaling suppresses plant thermotolerance and highlights the dual function of the CRY1-COP1-HY5 module in both light-and heat-stress signaling, providing insights into how plants integrate heat stress and light signals to optimize their survival under heat stress.

Protein-protein interaction (PPI) play a pivotal role in cellular signal transduction. The bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay offers a rapid and intuitive means to ascertain the localization and interactions of target proteins within living cells. BiFC is based on fluorescence complementation by reconstitution of a functional fluorescent protein by co-expression of N- and C-terminal fragments of this protein. When fusion proteins interact, the N- and C-terminal fragments come into close proximity, leading to the reconstitution of the fluorescent protein. In the conventional approach, the N-terminal and C-terminal fragments of the fluorescent protein are typically expressed using two separate vectors, which largely relies on the efficiency of the transformation of the two vectors in the same cells. Furthermore, issues of vector incompatibility can often result in loss of one plasmid. To address these challenges, we have developed novel dual-transgenic BiFC vectors, designed as pDTQs, derived from the previously published pDT1 vector. This set of BiFC vectors offers the following advantages: 1) Both fluorescent fusion proteins are expressed sequentially within a single vector, enhancing expression efficiency; 2) Independent promoters and terminators regulate the expression of the two proteins potentially mitigating vector compatibility issues; 3) A long linker is inserted between the fluorescent protein fragment and the gene of interest, facilitating the recombination of the fused fluorescent protein into an active form; 4) Four distinct types of fluorescent proteins, namely, EYFP, mVenus, mRFP1Q66T and mCherry are available for BiFC analysis. We assessed the efficiency of the pDTQs system by investigating the oligomerization of Arabidopsis CRY2 and CRY2-BIC2 interactions in N. benthamiana. Notably, the pDTQs were found to be applicable in rice, underscoring their potential utility across various plant species.

Lilies are economically significant crops, and their fragrance is a crucial trait for cut flowers. Different lily varieties exhibit a rich diversity of fragrance profiles. To identify chemical markers associated with sensory attributes, this study screened 36 popular cut lily varieties with varying fragrances. Sensory analysis and HS-SPME-GC-MS were used to evaluate their fragrance characteristics. The aroma intensity evaluation showed that OT and O varieties had stronger fragrances, while LA and L varieties had lower fragrance intensities. LO, L, and LA varieties were preferred by evaluators over O, OA, and OT varieties. However, there was no significant correlation between aroma intensity and hedonic tone. A total of 73 VOCs were detected. Methyl benzoate, (3-myrcene, (E)-(3-ocimene, allo-ocimene, ethyl benzoate, and (Z)-caryophyllene were present in the fragrances of most varieties. PCA and HCA analyses indicated that the relative emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) could effectively distinguish the fragrance characteristics of LO, O, and OT varieties, while the proportion of VOCs emissions could differentiate LA, LO, and OT varieties. PLS regression and jackknife analyses identified that the relative emission and proportion of terpinolene, eugenol, and (E)-isoeugenol were positively correlated with aroma intensity. Linalool (proportion) and cyclopentene, 3-isopropenyl-5,5-dimethyl- were positively correlated with hedonic tone, while methyl salicylate (proportion) was negatively correlated with hedonic tone. These findings provide potential chemical markers for the efficient evaluation of cut lily fragrances and offer references for selecting raw materials for lily fragrance oils and hydrosols.

Light regulates chlorophyll homeostasis and photosynthesis via various molecular mechanisms in plants. The light regulation of transcription and protein stability of nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins have been extensively studied, but how light regulation of mRNA metabolism affects abundance of nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins and chlorophyll homeostasis remains poorly understood. Here we show that the blue light receptor cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) and the METTL16-type m6A writer FIONA1 (FIO1) regulate chlorophyll homeostasis in response to blue light. In contrast to the CRY2-mediated photo-condensation of the mRNA adenosine methylase (MTA), photoexcited CRY2 co-condenses FIO1 only in the presence of the CRY2-signalling protein SUPPRESSOR of PHYTOCHROME A (SPA1). CRY2 and SPA1 synergistically or additively activate the RNA methyltransferase activity of FIO1 in vitro, whereas CRY2 and FIO1, but not MTA, are required for the light-induced methylation and translation of the mRNAs encoding multiple chlorophyll homeostasis regulators in vivo. Our study demonstrates that the light-induced liquid-liquid phase separation of the photoreceptor/writer complexes is commonly involved in the regulation of photoresponsive changes of mRNA methylation, whereas the different photo-condensation mechanisms of the CRY/FIO1 and CRY/MTA complexes explain, at least partially, the writer-specific functions in plant photomorphogenesis.

A rigid cationic 3D EMOF was prepared by a simple hydrothermal method using a nitrogen-rich chelating ligand, and a strong hydrogen bond interaction was formed to stabilize NO 3 − anions with high energy and low mechanical stimulation.

The ability of lignocellulose degradation for filamentous fungi is always attributed to their efficient CAZymes system with broader applications in bioenergy development. ADP-ribosylation factor GTPase-activating proteins (Arf-GAPs), pivotal in fungal morphogenesis, lack comprehensive studies on their regulatory mechanisms in lignocellulose utilization. Here, the orthologs (TgGlo3 and TgGcs1) of Arf-GAPs in S. cerevisiae were characterized in Trichoderma guizhouense NJAU4742. The results indicated that overexpression of Tggcs1 (OE-Tggcs1) enhanced the lignocellulose utilization, whereas increased expression of Tgglo3 (OE-Tgglo3) elicited antithetical responses. On the fourth day of fermentation with rice straw as the sole carbon source, the activities of endoglucanase, cellobiohydrolase, xylanase, and filter paper of the wild-type strain (WT) reached 8.20 U mL−1, 4.42 U mL−1, 14.10 U mL−1, and 3.56 U mL−1, respectively. Compared to WT, the four enzymes activities of OE-Tggcs1 increased by 7.93

The postharvest fragrance quality of aromatic cut flowers is crucial, yet efficient and rapid detection methods are lacking. To develop a rapid and accurate method for evaluating the fragrance quality during the senescence of aromatic cut flowers, this study first utilized HS-SPME-GC-MS to analyze the fragrance of six Hedychium cultivars cut flowers at different stages postharvest (bud, semi-open, full bloom, and senescence), identifying 69 compounds. Multivariate statistical analysis revealed significant during full bloom, with monoterpenoids predominant in 'ZS', 'EM', 'Gaoling', and 'Jin', and benzenoids/phenylpropanoids in 'MH'. Concurrently, PTR-ToF-MS detected 68 masses consistent with GC-MS results. PLS-DA analysis identified eucalyptol, benzyl acetate, linalool, (E)-beta-ocimene, methyl benzoate, and masses m/z 91.057, m/z 137.134, m/z 81.07, m/z 102.096, m/z 31.019 as potential markers for distinguishing Hedychium varieties. Additionally, PLS analysis identified masses m/z 58.078, m/z 103.076, and m/z 155.144 as predictors of agarospirol content; m/z 73.065, m/z 74.069, m/z 151.151 for eucalyptol, and m/z 27.021, m/z 31.019, m/z 41.039, m/z 43.054, m/z 55.054, m/z 57.033, m/z 70.077, m/z 72.056, m/z 88.079, m/z 91.057, m/z 92.065, and m/z 108.089 for benzyl acetate. The results provide new methods for efficient fragrance evaluation during the postharvest senescence of aromatic flower.

Translation initiation is a critical, rate-limiting step in protein synthesis. The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) plays an essential role in this process. However, the mechanisms by which eIF4E-dependent translation initiation regulates plant growth and development remain not fully understood. In this study, we found that Arabidopsis eIF4E proteins are distributed in both the nucleus and cytoplasm, with only the cytoplasmic eIF4E being involved in the control of photoperiodic flowering. Genome-wide translation profiling using Ribo-tag sequencing reveals that eIF4E may regulate plant flowering by maintaining the homeostatic translation of components in the photoperiodic flowering pathway. eIF4E not only regulates the translation of flowering genes such as FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and FLOWERING LOCUS D (FLD) but also influences the translation of circadian genes like CIRCADIAN CLOCK ASSOCIATED 1 (CCA1) and PSEUDO-RESPONSE REGULATOR 9 (PRR9). Consistently, our results show that the eIF4E modulates the rhythmic oscillation of the circadian clock. Together, our study provides mechanistic insights into how the protein translation regulates multiple developmental processes in Arabidopsis, including the circadian clock and photoperiodic flowering.

Light is an important environmental signal that governs plant growth, development, and metabolism. Constitutive photomorphogenic 1 (COP1) is a light signaling component that plays a vital role in plant light responses. We isolated the COP1 gene (LoCOP1) from the petals of Lilium ‘Siberia’ and investigated its function. The LoCOP1 protein was found to be the most similar to Apostasia shenzhenica COP1. LoCOP1 was found to be an important factor located in the nucleus and played a negative regulatory role in floral scent production and emission using the virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) approach. The yeast two-hybrid, β-galactosidase, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays revealed that LoCOP1 interacts with LoMYB1 and LoMYB3. Furthermore, light modified both the subcellular distribution of LoCOP1 and its interactions with LoMYB1 and MYB3 in onion cells. The findings highlighted an important regulatory mechanism in the light signaling system that governs scent emission in Lilium ‘Siberia’ by the ubiquitination and degradation of transcription factors via the proteasome pathway.

Energetic materials (EMs) have been widely employed in both military and civilian areas for nearly two centuries. The introduction of high-energy azide anions to assemble energetic metal-organic frameworks (EMOFs) is an efficient strategy to enhance energetic properties. However, azido-based EMOFs always suffer low stabilities to external mechanical stimulation. Herein, we employed an in situ hydrothermal reaction as a technique to refine azide anions with a neutral triazole-cyano-based ligand TrzAt (TrzAt = 2-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)acetonitrile) to yield two tetrazole-based EMOFs, namely, [ZnBr(trmetz)]n1 and [Cd(trmetz)2]n2 (Htrmetz = 5-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1H-tetrazole). Compound 1 features a closely packed 2D layered network, while compound 2 exhibits a 3D architecture. With azide anions inlaid into a nitrogen-rich and chelating ligand in the EMOFs, compounds 1 and 2 present remarkable decomposition temperatures (Tdec ≥ 300 °C), low impact sensitivities (IS ≥ 32 J) and low friction sensitivities (FS ≥ 324 N). The calculated heat of detonation (ΔHdet) values of 1 and 2 are 3.496 and 4.112 kJ g-1, respectively. In particular, the ΔHdet value of 2 is higher than that of traditional secondary explosives such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT, ΔHdet = 3.720 kJ g-1). These results indicate that EMOFs 1 and 2 may serve as potential replacements for traditional secondary explosives. This work provides a simple and effective strategy to obtain two EMOFs with satisfactory energy densities and reliable stabilities through an in situ hydrothermal technique for desensitization of azide anions.