Given the media's changing landscape for advertising, an examination of advertising creativity and its media interaction takes on increasing importance. Accordingly, we investigate within a meta-analytic framework the moderating role of media type (i.e., traditional/non-traditional) in the relationship between advertising creativity and its effects. The analysis covers 48 papers with 298 data points. First, the meta-analytic findings indicate that ad creativity is positively related to cognition, attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Second, the type of media moderates the relationship between ad creativity and its effects. Specifically, the results show that for cognition, print media exhibits a larger impact than TV and non-traditional media. For affect, there is a significant difference in the influence of print versus non-traditional media and TV versus non-traditional media. Non-traditional media produces a smaller impact than print and TV media. For conation, a comparison of TV versus non-traditional media reveals a significant difference in impact. TV media shows a larger impact than non-traditional media. Given that the motivation, opportunity, and ability to process creative ads in traditional and non-traditional media may differ, we present several directions for future research.

Our study provides an evaluative and a reflective analysis of doctoral business training in Africa to help develop a deeper understanding of the challenges and realities in increasing the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) production in business/management. We begin by framing the context and structure of PhD programs in Africa. Using an illustrative sample of ten African business schools from five countries and available secondary data and reports on Africa's doctoral business training programs, we present a synoptic view of doctoral business education in Africa and provide an explication of four imperatives in policies and strategies. We end by offering a set of recommendations, including matching PhD production to resources; dealing with human and capital resource-shortage; providing guidelines and stringent regulations for PhD supervision; needing adequate financing to support doctoral students; collecting data to inform policymaking; exploring opportunities to enhance teaching and learning; and initiating intentional education to promote an inclusive academic environment where women are welcome and included for the development and management of business doctoral programs.

Protected areas are of national importance and have developed into sources of benefits while in other situations have sparked conflicts among stakeholders, including residents from adjacent local communities, and park authorities. In this study, we examined community residents' attitudes towards the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) in the Kalahari region (SW Botswana). This study assessed factors that influence support for, or opposition to, the KTP. A questionnaire with semi-structured questions was used to gather information from head of households (N = 746) in nine villages in the Kalahari region. Overall, positive attitudes and support for the KTP as a transfrontier park were documented, though tangible benefits were limited. Further based on analyses, literacy, proximity, and employment status were key variables that influenced support. In addition, any increase in residents' perceived benefits, land ownership, conservation awareness, and local benefits resulted in increased support for KTP. The implications indicated that communities near the KTP (Botswana side) need to be consulted, while further communications between the KTP management and authorities and adjacent villages are required to initiate effective community conservation programs. Additional programs and community outreach initiatives would also enable positive attitudes and support of KTP.

This article seeks to advance our understanding of the culture-entrepreneurship relationship from an African perspective by examining how six African traditional beliefs either promote or hinder entrepreneurial activities. These six traditional Ghanaian cultural beliefs (i.e. belief in godliness, belief in paranormal activities, belief in a social hierarchical structure, belief in familism, belief in communal social orientation, and belief in patriarchism) are directly linked to entrepreneurial behavior. We argue that this belief system differs from those of other cultural contexts and provides the underpinnings for understanding African culture and entrepreneurship. We derive propositions of how this belief system relates to the entrepreneurial eco-system. These propositions suggest the following: Belief in familism, belief in communal social orientation and belief in patriarchism are likely to have, depending on the circumstances, a positive or a negative relationship with entrepreneurship. Belief in paranormal activities and belief in a social hierarchical structure are bound to influence entrepreneurial behavior negatively. At the same time, belief in godliness will influence entrepreneurial activities positively. Following these inferences, the article concludes that Ghanaian culture, and African culture as a whole, frame entrepreneurial activities. However, the cultural belief system suggests that the culture-entrepreneurship relationship is more complex than previously envisaged.

Whereas several studies have investigated cultural values and entrepreneurship in terms of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions from a Western-world “lens,” we take a slightly different approach in that three of our six Ghanaian cultural values intersect with three of Hofstede’s dimensions (i.e., power distance, collectivism, and masculinity-femininity). Thus, six traditional Ghanaian cultural values (i.e., godliness, belief in paranormal activities, character or moral value, respect for the elderly, a sense of community, and the sanctity of man) are juxtaposed with entrepreneurial features allowing us to put forward potential relationship between culture and entrepreneurial behavior. Zoogah (2013) writes that, unlike American cultures, research in anthropology, sociology, and psychology shows that sub-Saharan African cultures are collectivistic, cooperative, and less autonomous. Ghanaian culture, for instance, is consistent with sub-Saharan African culture in that individuals think of not only themselves and their immediate family but also their extended family members (Zoogah 2013). Ghanaians, like sub-Saharan Africans (see Oppong 2003), depend on and provide support to one another, offering guidance and behavioral modeling for younger members. Our discussion implies and assumes these underlying commonalities and affinities running through sub-Saharan African and, specifically, Ghanaian culture. In Ghana, whether the entrepreneur may be a small retailer, a small business owner, someone engaged in a street venture, or someone engaged in an informal or formal venture or engaged in family-owned or nonfamily-owned enterprises, the influence of culture still prevails. Godliness can have negative or positive influence depending on the circumstances. While belief in paranormal activities is likely to have a negative influence on entrepreneurial activity, doing the right thing and retaining moral character can have a positive influence, whereas doing the wrong things can have a negative influence on entrepreneurial activity. Respect for elderly and authority may restrict value expressiveness and hinder innovativeness. At the same time, the sense of community may help pool resources together for investment and may even get different entrepreneurs to cooperate but can drain resources for entrepreneurial activity. In addition, it may also hinder growth or expansion in order to lower family demand on the fruits of the enterprise. Hence, the sense of community is likely to have a positive or negative impact on entrepreneurial behavior. Finally, sanctity of man is likely to have a positive or negative influence on entrepreneurial activity at least from the Ghanaian perspective. From these inferences and deductions, one concludes that Ghanaian culture, and by extension, African culture, largely, influences entrepreneurship. In light of the fact that Ghanaians live in multidimensional social arenas comprising of their traditional society and immediate community (i.e., extended families), entrepreneurs are compelled to redefine their position and their roles as they confront different situations by exploiting social ties and social settings. References Available Upon Request

Business schools throughout the world are pursuing national and international validation by seeking accreditation such as AACSB, EQUIS, and/or AMBA. The issue of accreditation of African universities, in general, and of business schools, in particular, is only now beginning to be addressed on a continental level. There is also a growing concern about the quality of higher education in Africa. We examine international business school accreditation from a post-colonial theory perspective. We argue that simply applying Western accreditation standards in a post-colonial context does not address relevant African business problems, nor does it examine educational needs in this environment. Our discussion focuses on these issues as well as on recommendations to assist many, if not most, African business schools in meeting the needs of their stakeholders given the socioeconomic and cultural realities of Africa.

Using the comprehensive service evaluation model and the three-component model of commitment as backdrop, this study investigates the moderating role of gender on the service value-service retention relationship and examines the impact of the initial purchase experience on the value-retention relationship within the automotive service repair (ASR) industry. Employing a survey of 128 automobile dealer customers, logistic regression analyses show that service value (i.e., convenient hours, quality, friendliness), as well as length of ownership influence service retention. Also, gender moderates the service value dimensions and service retention relationship such that various components of service value (convenient hours, friendliness and quality) were significant predictors of service retention whereas service value (friendliness, quality) were significant predictors of service retention for females. In addition, length of ownership and initial purchase experience are significant predictors of service retention for females, but not for males.

Purpose Using social cognitive theory as a theoretical backdrop, this paper aims to investigate antecedents and mediators of e-maven propensity and evaluates the transferability of physical market maven to online channel. A conceptual model capturing the links among information seeking tendency, physical market maven, e-shopping attitude and e-satisfaction as determinants of e-maven propensity is developed and tested. Design/methodology/approach Survey data from 199 adult consumers were collected and analyzed using structural equation modeling with multi-group analysis. Findings The results show the direct and indirect effects of physical market maven on e-maven propensity. Additionally, the relationship between physical market maven and e-maven propensity is moderated by e-shopping intensity such that the relationship is stronger for the high e-shopping intensity group than for the low e-shopping intensity group. Practical implications In a multi-channel environment, being able to share marketplace information across different channels takes on greater significance. Developing a customized strategy in managing e-word-of-mouth and e-maven behaviors within the context of the level of consumers' e-shopping intensity is needed. E-mavens could be invited not only to serve as co-creators but also as significant influencers for a company's products and services. Originality/value The study draws an interesting parallel between physical mavens and their online characteristics, as well as captures the conditions under which transferability of physical maven behavior to online channel occurs. Two distinct patterns are exhibited depending on the level of e-shopping intensity.

Using social identity theory and social capital theory as a backdrop to understand the context of subsistence marketplaces, this study investigates how rural micro and small businesses engage in marketing practices and how poverty reduction policies affect micro and small business activities and growth. The results show that rural micro and small businesses weave morality and religiosity into their commercial activities and survive in a competitive subsistence marketplace by engaging with social networks, relationships with customers, and relationships with staff. The interdependence among these relationships contributes to the competitive positioning of the business and its intelligence gathering. Despite the existence of government programs to fund micro and small business startups, most owner-managers use social networks to initially fund and grow their businesses. The paper ends with implications and future research directions.

PurposeUsing the resource-focused view of the firm as a theoretical backdrop, this study aims to examine the relationships between entrepreneurial perceptions and two dependent measures (i.e. customer satisfaction outcomes and firm performance). Specifically, the study tests the boundary conditions of the resource-based view (RBV) performance relationship in a Middle Eastern context.Design/methodology/approachThe data from 171 female Saudi entrepreneurs are analyzed using structural equation modeling.FindingsThe research results revealed that marketing capability and financial capability (i.e. financial capital access) have a positive significant effect on both dependent measures. Labor shortage also has a negative significant effect on both dependent variables, whereas operations capability does not show a significant effect on the two dependent measures. To a large extent, the results show that the RBV holds true in the Saudi context.Originality/valueThe study contributes to the knowledge about the effects of specific human and financial capital, as well as illuminates how marketing capability, financial capital access and labor shortage impact these dependent variables in the unique context of Saudi Arabia among female entrepreneurs, thereby extending the knowledge of the RBV in different contexts. Furthermore, it extends knowledge of the entrepreneurship literature, especially in the area of gender-based entrepreneurship research in developing countries.

Purpose The study aims to explore supply chain influence (SCI) on the linkages among market orientation, innovation capabilities and firm performance (FP), using the resource-based view as a theoretical backdrop. Design Survey data from 182 top managers who are involved in strategy formulation and innovative direction of their companies was collected and analyzed using moderated multiple regression analysis. Findings Results revealed a moderating role of the SCI in that the proactive market orientation (PMO) and FP relationship is stronger when SCI is high, and innovation commercialization capability (ICC) and FP relationship is stronger when SCI is low. Practical implications Firms pursuing high PMO strategy must collaborate with supply chain function to achieve the full effect of PMO. Additionally, as supply chain is critical to meeting customers’ needs, these firms should allow supply chain to exert greater influence to enjoy the positive effects of PMO in addition to ensuring full integration into marketing strategy implementation. Also, firms with high ICC need to limit SCI to maximize the benefit of ICC on FP, just as innovation management needs to be cognizant of other functional areas. Originality/value The study investigates the potential moderating role of SCI on the relationships among market orientation, ICC and FP. The study fills a gap in the understanding of the nature and role of supply chain in the marketing–supply chain interaction, and the impact on FP.

This article delineates the individual and institutional challenges management faculty in African universities face in producing research that is relevant to the African context and also meets the growing expectation for international publications. We argue that faculty in Africa should and must do research not just for the sake of doing research, but this research should contribute to the knowledge economy, be relevant to the African context, and ensure students are educated through the use of empirical and theoretical research on local and continental management issues. An exploratory survey of 57 faculty members from 10 African countries ( Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda) examines the extent of research funding, support, and incentives within their universities. Thus, suggestions are proffered as to what African universities and business schools, the business community, and governments should do to enhance research infrastructure, productivity, and quality. The article ends with a conclusion and a set of implications.

The authors examine the relationship between challenges faced by the female Saudi entrepreneurs and their ability to predict consumer needs in the context of the stage of entrepreneurial activity (early-late stage). The results from hierarchical regression show that early-late stage entrepreneurial activity moderates the relationship between challenges faced and the ability to predict customer needs. The pattern of the relationships was negative within the early-stage group and positive within the late-stage entrepreneurial group. Also, the relationship was slightly more sensitive for the late group than for the early group. The article ends with a discussion of the results, implications, and suggestions for future research.

This paper examines common methodological problems encountered in consumer research of ethnic minority populations. Problems with respect to category construction and population focus, establishing conceptual, functional and measure equivalence, dealing with sampling issues, as well as establishing data collection equivalence are discussed. Specifically, conceptually and methodologically based suggestions together with suggestions for sampling and data analysis are delineated for dealing with some of the concerns in consumer research with ethnic minorities. Ethnocentric and reporting considerations are also addressed. These suggestions are offered in the spirit of encouraging further consumer research in minority populations.

Consumer perceptions of advertising creativity are investigated in a series of studies beginning with scale development and ending with comprehensive model testing. Results demonstrate that perceptions of ad creativity are determined by the interaction between divergence and relevance, and that overall creativity mediates their effects on consumer processing and response.

ABSTRACT The authors review and extend the culture literature in international marketing by discussing some of the cultural underpinnings pertaining to the sub-Saharan African context. With the use of inductive reasoning, the authors offer several key normative suggestions for international marketing practices. Marketers should focus not only on the end user but also on those who significantly influence the final decision. Sub-Saharan African culture is characterized by long, drawn-out negotiation processes and by contracts and overall sales targets that likely will be dissimilar to those from countries with a linear view of time. Age is relevant when selecting people for negotiation assignments and hiring sales and managerial staff. Because of the importance of "respect," messages should focus on an individual's need for belongingness rather than on the individual striving for achievement. The authors advocate that advertising appeals should focus on the society and on the individual as a member of the society and not on individual self-enhancement. Context and nonverbal communications are important in personal selling. It is better to establish social trust first in negotiations, personal selling, and buyer–seller interaction.

INTRODUCTION Education can be the difference between a life of grinding poverty and the potential for a full and secure one; between a child dying from preventable disease, and families raised in healthy environments ... between countries ripped apart by poverty and conflict, and access to secure and sustainable development. (2) In a global environment characterized by continuous social, political and economic changes, the universities of Africa have a vital role to play in helping with the socio-economic development of the continent. The answer to many of the challenges facing the region can and should be found at the universities. Because a significant portion of a developing country's gross national product (GNP) goes to support its universities, it behooves African universities to engage in activities that will aid in development without detracting from their teaching role and scholarly activities. Although overall revenue allocation has been declining, African countries still invest heavily in education at all levels and considerably higher at the tertiary than the basic educational level. According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2009), (3)Africa's public expenditure on a tertiary student amounts to four to eleven times that of a secondary student. In Niger, it is 46% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita for a secondary student versus 371% of GDP per capita for a tertiary student. In Chad, Madagascar, and Togo, the cost is eight to eleven times more for a tertiary student than a secondary student (348%, 145%, and 162%, respectively, versus 29%, 13%, and 20%, respectively, expressed as GDP per capita). The benefit of such investments is shown in the area of capacity building, where a strong link has been found to exist between the levels of graduate expertise in science and technology and the capacity of the local private sector to develop and produce local solutions to local problems. (4) Additionally, a significant (89%) correlation exists between levels of tertiary education and indicators such as GDP. (5) Much is expected of the institutions of higher learning beyond teaching and learning. While basic education at the primary and secondary levels is essential to laying the foundation for equality and reduction of poverty in a nation, higher education plays a key role in producing knowledge as a driving force of growth and progress. According to Mamdani, (6) higher education is at 'the strategic heart of education,' hence, those who wish to transform general education must begin with higher education. Universities can provide appropriate education programs to enhance the quality of the labor force, perform basic and applied research, and offer technical and management assistance. (7) This article essentially addresses the role of a public university in the context of an 'emerging' continent and presents ideas whose implementation can contribute to overall development of the continent. The authors focus on key areas where the public university can make a difference in the lives of its citizens. First, we examine the higher education system at its current state with a discussion of its challenges as a backdrop to provide an appropriate context. This discussion examines the socio-demographic factors, urbanization, 'brain drain,' and current state of African universities. Second, we examine the role of the public university. Third, we address the extent to which the public university can contribute to: (a) human resource development; (b) new knowledge generation; (c) public impact analysis; and (d) capacity building. These four areas of development taken together are a reflection of the trilogy of contributions in teaching, research/scholarship, and civic engagement. Our discussion is tempered by the recognition of differences among African countries with respect to their higher education systems. Africa has both public and private (i.e., for profit, not for profit, religious and international) universities. …

In this article, the author describes anecdotal predictors of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, which include key indicators of development, governance variables, information infrastructure, and business environment. He also presents the public policy challenges of increasing FDI to Sub-Saharan Africa. Using Porter's 1990 framework of competitive advantage of nations as a backdrop, specific strategies to increase FDI inflows with their implications are offered. Among the suggested strategies and implications are using the "principle of clustering'' where demand conditions are favorable, looking outside the traditional inflows of FDI to Africa, establishing carefully monitored export processing zones, expanding regional trading arrangements, working together to change the negative perceptions of the region, and reducing corruption. The article ends with a conclusion and discussion.

This paper examines the challenges encountered when conducting tourism-related research in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Using socio-demographic and infrastructure information as a backdrop, aspects of market research and their attendant challenges are examined. Issues of functional equivalence, conceptual equivalence, and translation equivalence are discussed, together with challenges relating to sampling, data collection, and analysis. The paper highlights some critical issues that need to be addressed when conducting consumer tourism-related surveys, in general, and community tourism-related research, in particular, in SSA countries and concludes with a discussion of the ways in which research and data gathering could be improved. Recommendations are offered in the spirit of encouraging consumer tourism-survey research and data gathering in Africa.