Grain boundary migration in the presence of concentrated sources of heat is a complex process that has a considerable impact on resultant material properties. A phase field model is presented incorporating thermal gradient and curvature driving force terms to predict how a poly-crystalline network evolves due to the application of such heat sources, as grain boundaries migrate due to local boundary curvature and time-varying thermal gradients. Various thermal scenarios are investigated, in both two and three dimensions. These scenarios include both partial and full penetration laser induced melting, the application of a linearly varying time-independent thermal field, and successive melting events where regions experience multiple melting and solidification cycles. Comparisons are made between the microstructures predicted by the proposed phase field method, during the various thermal scenarios, that agree with commonly observed phenomena. Particularly interesting is the ability to explain the differences in grain morphology between the full penetration and partial penetration welds using the phase field model and associated driving force magnitudes between the two scenarios. The model predicts the restoration of grain boundary networks in regions experiencing multiple melting events, and explains the differences in grain morphology due to the local curvature and thermal gradient effects.

This paper presents a computational framework to study the differences in process-induced microvoid and precipitate distributions during selective laser melting (SLM) of two nickel-based superalloys representative of low (IN718) and high (CM247LC) volume fraction precipitate-strengthened alloys. Simulations indicate that CM247LC has a higher propensity to form process-induced microvoids than IN718. Particle sintering is predicted to be strongly influenced by the powder size distribution. For deposition thickness of approximately 40 μm, thermal gradients during cooling are predicted to be larger for CM247LC than IN718 and consequently expect the development of larger residual stresses for a high volume fractionγ′ alloy. A coupled mean field/finite-element approach has been used to predict the precipitate distributions across a simple rectangular build and during a subsequent hot isostatic pressing (HIP) cycle. Unimodal and multi-modal particle distributions are predicted for IN718 and CM247LC at the end of the SLM, respectively. A higher volume fraction ofγ′ is predicted for CM247LC at the end of the SLM process. During HIP, simulations indicate a dramatic increase in theγ′ volume fraction in CM247LC, which can result in a reduction in stress relaxation and lead to a ductility drop.

A multi-scale, multi-physics modelling framework of selective laser melting (SLM) in the nickel-based superalloy IN718 is presented. Representative powder-bed particle distribution is simulated using the measured size distribution from experiment. Thermal fluid dynamics calculations are then used to predict melting behaviour, sub-surface morphology, and porosity development during a single pass scanning of the SLM process. The results suggest that the pores and uneven surface structure are exacerbated by increasing powder layer thicknesses. Predicted porosity volume fraction is up to 12% of the single track when 5 statistical powder distributions are simulated for each powder layer thickness. Processing-induced microstructure is predicted by linking cellular automatons - finite element calculations indicate further that the cooling rate is about 4400 degrees C/s and grain growth strongly follows the thermal gradient giving rise to a columnar grain morphology if homogeneous nucleation is assumed. Random texture is likely for as-fabricated SLM single pass with approximately 8 mu m and 6 mu m grain size for 20 mu m and 100 mu m powder layer thickness fabrication. Use has been made of the cooling history to predict more detailed microstructure using a gamma" precipitation model. With the short time scale of solidification and rapid cooling, it becomes less likely that gamma" precipitation will be observed in the condition investigated unless a prolonged hold at temperature is carried out. Future work on extension of the proposed multiscale modelling approach on microstructure predictions in SLM to mechanical properties will be discussed.

Weld simulation methods have often employed mathematical functions to describe the size and shape of the molten pool of material transiently present in a weld. However, while these functions can sometimes accurately capture the fusion boundary for certain welding parameters in certain materials, they do not necessarily offer a robust methodology for the more intricate weld pool shapes that can be produced in materials with a very low thermal conductivity, such as the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. Cross-sections of steady-state welds can be observed which contain a dramatic narrowing of the pool width at roughly half way in to the depth of the plate of material, and a significant widening again at the base. These effects on the weld pool are likely to do with beam focusing height. However, the resultant intricacy of the pool means that standard formulaic methods to capture the shape may prove relatively unsuccessful. Given how critical the accuracy of pool shape is in determining the mechanical response to the heating, an alternative method is presented. By entering weld pool width measurements for a series of depths in a Cartesian co-ordinate system using FE weld simulation software Sysweld, a more representative weld pool size and shape can be predicted, compared to the standard double ellipsoid method. Results have demonstrated that significant variations in the mid-depth thermal profile are observed between the two, even though the same values for top and bottom pool-widths are entered. Finally, once the benefits of the Cartesian co-ordinate method are demonstrated, the robustness of this approach to predict a variety of weld pool shapes has been demonstrated upon a series of nine weld simulations, where the two key process parameters (welding laser power and travel speed) are explored over a design space ranging from 1.5 to 3 kW and 50 to 200 mm/s. Results suggest that for the faster travel speeds, the more detailed Cartesian co-ordinate method is better, whereas for slower welds, the traditional double ellipsoid function captures the fusion boundary as successfully as the Cartesian method, and in faster computation times.

Thermal fluid dynamics and experiments have been used to study the evolution of pores during selective laser melting of Ti-6A1-4V. Scanning electron micrographs show that the morphology of pores changed from near-spherical to elongated shape as the laser scan speed increased. Computational fluid dynamics suggests that this is caused by the change of flow pattern in the melt pool which is dictated by forces such as vapour pressure, gravitational force, capillary and thermal capillary forces exerted on the metallic/gaseous interface. (C) 2015 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.