Extensive experimental and theoretical evidence demonstrates the positive effects of plant diversity on the temporal stability of productivity, yet how the diversity-stability relationship varies across timescales and different diversity dimensions in natural ecosystems remains unclear. By integrating a comprehensive regional vegetation survey conducted in Tibetan alpine grasslands with the global plant diversity and productivity databases, we revealed a consistent temporal pattern at regional and global scales: the stabilizing effect of plant diversity on productivity strengthened over time, approaching saturation at 10 to 13 years. Notably, plant phylogenetic diversity emerged as the dominant biotic driver of long-term stability. In contrast, plant community height exerted a stronger positive influence on short-term stability. These findings highlight the critical role of timescales in shaping diversity-stability relationships and underscore the necessity of decadal-scale studies. Our results further support integrating phylogenetic diversity into conservation and management strategies to sustain ecosystem functioning under global change.

Abstract Microbial necromass nitrogen (N) constitutes a major component of soil N pools, and elucidating its response to N enrichment is essential for optimizing fertilizer management in grassland ecosystems. However, the effects of varying N addition levels on microbial necromass N and the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we leveraged a decade-long field experiment in an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP), applying six N addition levels (0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 g N m−2 yr−1) to investigate the response of microbial necromass N and its key drivers. Microbial necromass N exhibited a nonlinear response to N enrichment, remaining stable under low N inputs (2, 4, and 8 g N m−2 yr−1) but increasing significantly at higher N addition levels (16 and 32 g N m−2 yr−1). Across all treatments, microbial necromass N accounted for 67–76% of total soil N. Nitrogen-induced changes in plant, soil, and microbial factors collectively explained 60% of the variation in microbial necromass N. Among these, soil factors were the dominant predictors, accounting for 34% of the total variance, with mineral protection (Feo + Alo) and soil inorganic nitrogen (SIN) identified as the primary drivers. These findings highlight the pivotal role of microbial necromass N in soil N storage and its nonlinear response to N enrichment, underscoring the importance of effective N management for enhancing soil N retention and stability in alpine grasslands.

IntroductionCamel grazing drives grassland degradation in arid regions. However, how does it affect the synergistic changes in soil water, salinity, and nitrogen availability? Moreover, how does it reshape the trade-offs between root and rhizome economic strategies? Quantitative studies addressing these questions remain scarce.MethodsThis study investigated saline meadow ecosystems under camel grazing in arid regions, comparing three grazing treatments: no grazing (NG), controlled grazing (CG), and free grazing (FG). Nine soil physicochemical properties and nine root and rhizome functional traits of dominant plants were assessed across three soil layers (0-25, 25-50, and 50–100 cm). The findings provide critical insights to support sustainable camel grazing management in arid salt-affected meadows.Results and discussionCamel grazing depletes nitrogen, accumulates salt, and redistributes water in the 0–25 cm soil layer. Consequently, the root functional trait syndrome shifts from acquisitive to conservative along PC1, whereas the rhizome functional trait syndrome shifts from reproductive to storage along PC2. Notably, nonlinear thresholds trigger these shifts, with threshold values of available nitrogen (AN) <42 mg·kg-¹, electrical conductivity (EC) >3144 µS·cm-¹, and soil water content (SWC) <10%. Grazing influences root and rhizome economic strategies via one direct and three indirect pathways (nitrogen depletion, salt accumulation, water redistribution). Grazing intensity, soil water, and nitrogen jointly filter the root acquisition-conservation axis, whereas salt and nitrogen jointly filter the rhizome reproduction-storage axis. These findings reveal a water-salt-nitrogen tripartite axis governing the differentiation of root and rhizome economic strategies and provide a scientific basis for threshold-based precision camel grazing management.

Increasing climate variability is expected to impose stronger selective pressures on plant communities than gradual warming alone, yet how repeated heat stress and recovery cycles influence plant performance remains poorly understood. Here, we compared the dynamic growth responses of three invasive and three native Asteraceae species exposed to three consecutive cycles of high temperature (40°C) and ambient temperature (26°C) under controlled conditions. Using destructive sampling across seven time points, we quantified growth trajectories and biomass allocation patterns throughout the fluctuation process. Repeated heat fluctuations induced pronounced divergence in growth dynamics between invasive and native plants. Invasive species exhibited significantly accelerated biomass accumulation under fluctuating conditions compared with constant ambient conditions, whereas native species showed no corresponding increase in growth rate and instead experienced progressive growth suppression. Biomass allocation patterns also differed consistently between the two groups. Invasive plants maintained or increased allocation to aboveground tissues, resulting in sustained gains in plant height and total biomass, while native plants increasingly shifted allocation belowground without corresponding biomass gains. Trait-based percentage changes further revealed that positive responses in key growth traits were consistently greater in invasive than in native species across successive fluctuation cycles. These results demonstrate that repeated heat fluctuations can amplify performance asymmetries between invasive and native plants, highlight the importance of heatwave-like thermal regimes as a driver of invasion success under climate change.

PurposeThe 400 mm isohyet, as the boundary between semi-humid and semi-arid regions, has severe spatiotemporal variations that inevitably generate a series of economic, social and ecological impacts. However, traditional studies primarily measured the coarse variations (latitude and longitude) of the 400 mm isohyet. Due to the complexity and variability of annual isohyet fluctuations, finescale changes (multidirection and magnitude) remain difficult to quantify. Thus, this study aims to systematically quantify the fluctuation characteristics of the 400 mm isohyet.Design/methodology/approachTo address this limitation, a high-precision long-term precipitation product was constructed and evaluated. In addition, this study introduced a boundary fluctuation detection method to quantitatively analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of the isohyet.FindingsThe 400 mm isohyet in the eastern region of China exhibited a significant westward shift (−0.036° yr−¹, p < 0.05) and a slight southward shift (−0.025° yr−¹). The most pronounced oscillations of the decadal 400 mm isohyet occurred in the border areas of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia. Temporally, between the 1980s and the 2000s, the isohyet in Northeast China clearly retreated southeastward, reflecting a transition toward a warmer and drier climate. In contrast, during the 2010s, the isohyet in Northeast China region, the Inner Mongolia and the Great Wall region, the Loess Plateau region and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau advanced northwestward compared to the 2000s, indicating a shift toward a warmer and wetter climate.Practical implicationsThis study strengthens and enhances the understanding of the spatiotemporal variation characteristics and patterns of agro-pastoral boundaries in the context of climate change, providing a scientific basis for climate change modeling, mitigation and adaptation strategies.Originality/valueThis study introduced a refined method to detect the spatiotemporal characteristics of 400 mm isohyet variations, overcoming previous challenges in capturing multidirectional changes in isohyet and filling a gap in the quantitative detection of geographical boundaries with temporal and spatial fluctuation characteristics.

A double-spiral microelectrode sensor chip was developed for reagent-free detection of mercury ions (Hg(II)) in seawater via in-situ pH modulation. This sensor chip, fabricated with thin-film technology, employs double-spiral microelectrodes configuration where one spiral functions as the working electrode for Hg(II) detection, while the other serves as the pH-modulating electrode. By applying a constant voltage of 1.2 V to the pH-modulating electrode, water electrolysis was induced and a localized acidic microenvironment was established at the working electrode-solution interface. This approach effectively eliminated the need for the external strong acid reagents used in conventional detection methods. The experimental results demonstrate that the sensor achieved a linear detection range of 0.3-350 mu g/L for reagent-free Hg(II) determination in simulated seawater samples, with a detection limit of 0.14 mu g/L. The sensor also exhibited excellent repeatability, selectivity, and anti-interference capability. The recovery rates for Hg(II) detection in real seawater samples ranged between 93% and 109%. The integration of in-situ pH modulation into the double-spiral electrode paves the way for environmentally friendly, reagent-free sensors to monitor heavy metals in seawater.

The positive effect of plant diversity on soil carbon (C) stocks is well documented, yet its role in shaping persistent C components essential for long-term soil C stability remains unclear. Using a 3,000-km transect survey of natural grasslands, we found that both bacterial and fungal necromass C increased with plant species richness, with more pronounced effects in the topsoil than in the subsoil and a steeper increase in fungal-derived necromass. Plant C inputs emerged as the primary driver of this response, exerting a stronger influence than soil nitrogen, pH, microbial attributes or mineral properties. These findings indicate that plant diversity promotes persistent soil C accumulation primarily through substrate supply that enhances microbial residue production. Our study underscores the importance of maintaining and restoring plant diversity in grasslands as a nature-based strategy to enhance stable soil C storage, thereby facilitating soil C sink capacity and contributing to climate change mitigation.

Land-use optimisation is critical for achieving sustainable rural development. However, existing studies often insufficiently address township-level differences in development priorities. Taking rural Qiqihar, China, as a case study, a differentiated land-use optimisation framework was developed in this study by integrating NSGA-II (Non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II), RF (Random forest), and IntPLUS (Interaction network-based patch-generating land use simulation) to optimise the land-use quantity and spatial pattern under township-specific planning priorities. The framework was applied to analyse land-use change during 2005–2020, identify differentiated driving factors, and simulate optimised land-use patterns for 2035 in Economically-Focused, Agriculture-Focused, and Ecology-Focused Townships. Results showed that cropland remained the dominant land-use type in rural Qiqihar, whereas grassland was the main source of land conversion and supported the expansion of impervious surfaces, forest, and water. The driving-factor associations of land expansion showed clear heterogeneity among township types, with NDVI (Normalized difference vegetation index), elevation, and accessibility-related factors exerting differentiated influences. Compared with the natural development scenario, the optimised scenario better aligned with township functional orientations by prioritising the dominant development objective while maintaining coordination among economic development, ecological protection, and cropland conservation. In Economically-Focused Townships, economic value increased by 17.67%, indicating improved development efficiency under spatial optimisation. In Ecology-Focused Townships, the ESV (Ecosystem service value) increased by 2.64%, whereas the economic value decreased only slightly by 0.74%. In Agriculture-Focused Townships, cropland changed from a 1.24% decrease to a 1.04% increase, and impervious-surface expansion was reduced from 25.93% to 10.62%. Overall, the results demonstrate that township-level differentiated regulation can improve the scientific basis and policy relevance of rural land-use optimisation, providing support for sustainable land-use management and rural revitalisation.

Bacteria, fungi, archaea, and viruses are reflective organisms that indicate soil health. Investigating the impact of crude oil pollution on the community structure and interactions among bacteria, fungi, archaea, and viruses in Calamagrostis epigejos soil can provide theoretical support for remediating crude oil pollution in Calamagrostis epigejos ecosystems. In this study, Calamagrostis epigejos was selected as the research subject and subjected to different levels of crude oil addition (0 kg/hm2, 10 kg/hm2, 40 kg/hm2). Metagenomic sequencing technology was employed to analyze the community structure and diversity of soil bacteria, fungi, archaea, and viruses. Additionally, molecular ecological network analysis was integrated to explore species interactions and ecosystem stability within these microbial communities. The functional profiles of soil microorganisms were elucidated based on data from the KEGG database. Results demonstrated a significant increase in petroleum hydrocarbon content, polyphenol oxidase activity, hydrogen peroxide enzyme activity, and acid phosphatase activity upon crude oil addition, while β-glucosidase content, fiber disaccharide hydrolase content, and tiller number decreased (P < 0.05). Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were identified as dominant bacterial phyla; Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucoromycota were found to be dominant fungal phyla; Thaumarchaeota emerged as a dominant archaeal phylum; and Uroviricota represented a dominant viral phylum. The diversity of soil bacterial, fungal, archaeal, and viral communities increased with higher amounts of added crude oil. Ecological network analysis revealed a robust collaborative relationship among bacterial, fungal, archaeal, and viral community species in the control treatment (CK), while strong competitive relationships were observed among these species in the treatments with 10% (F10) and 40% (F40) crude oil concentrations. Structural equation modeling analysis indicated significant positive correlations between fungal community, viral community, enzyme activity, and plant growth; conversely, bacterial and archaeal communities showed significant negative correlations with plant growth (P < 0.05). Correlation analysis identified acid phosphatase as the primary environmental factor influencing soil microbial function. Acid phosphatase levels along with tiller number, aboveground biomass, and petroleum hydrocarbons significantly influenced the fungal community (P < 0.05), while underground biomass had a significant impact on the archaeal community (P < 0.05). Acid phosphatase levels along with cellulose-hydrolyzing enzymes, tiller number, and petroleum hydrocarbons exhibited significant effects on the viral community (P < 0.05). This study investigated variations in bacterial, fungal, archaeal, and viral communities under different crude oil concentrations as well as their driving factors, providing a theoretical foundation for evaluating Calamagrostis epigejos’ potential to remediate crude oil pollution.

A high-sensitivity ultramicro interdigitated array electrode (UIAE) was developed for electrochemical detection of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), and corresponding manufacturing process was designed based on Micro-Electro Mechanism System (MEMS) fabrication technology. The electrode chip, with a feature size of 4 μm and an effective area of 0.8 mm 2 , exhibited a linear detection range of 0.15-2.0 mg/L (calculated as N), a sensitivity of 0.7525 μA·L·mg −1 , and a relative standard deviation of 4.4% in current response across six electrodes. These results contribute to improving the performance of NH 3 -N detection, and provide a reliable pathway for the production of microscale interdigitated array chips.

Global nitrogen deposition has profound impacts on ecosystem biodiversity and functions. However, the response trajectories and thresholds of the diversities of multiple trophic groups and multiple functions to nitrogen enrichment remain unclear. Here, combining a field experiment with a global-scale meta-analysis of 92 nitrogen experiments in grasslands, we show that plant diversity follows a decrease-then-plateau pattern with increasing nitrogen amount, while the diversities of soil bacteria, fungi, protists, and invertebrates all exhibit a stable-then-decrease pattern. For ecosystem functions, plant productivity and ecosystem carbon uptake both follow an increase-then-plateau pattern, while soil organic matter decomposition is best fitted with a stable-then-increase curve and plant–microbe mutualism with a decrease-then-plateau pattern. Accordingly, the nitrogen thresholds differ substantially between ecosystem attributes. Furthermore, the mechanisms driving the diversity and function responses are highly attribute-dependent. Our findings suggested that the attribute-specific trajectories and thresholds should be incorporated into models forecasting ecosystem feedbacks to nitrogen enrichment. A large-scale field experiment in Mongolia, paired with a meta-analysis of 92 global studies, evaluates how nitrogen enrichment affects diversity across multiple trophic levels and related ecosystem functions. Responses vary by trophic group and function, highlighting the value of using a broad nitrogen-addition gradient to identify threshold levels at which these responses shift.

In this study, an in situ electrochemical modulation method based on an ultramicro interdigitated array electrode (UIAE) sensor chip was developed for the detection of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) in neutral aqueous solutions. One comb of the UIAE was used as the working electrode for both the modulating and sensing functions, while the other comb was used as the counter electrode. Utilizing its enhanced mass transfer and proximity effects, the feasibility of in situ modulation of the solution environment near the UIAE chip to generate an electrochemical response for NH3-N was investigated using electrochemical methods. The proposed method enhances the concentration of hydroxide ions and active chloride in the local solution near the sensor chip. These reactive species play a key role in improving the sensor’s electrocatalytic oxidation capability toward ammonia nitrogen, facilitating the sensitive detection of ammonia nitrogen in neutral environments. A linear relationship was displayed, ranging from 0.15–2.0 mg/L (as nitrogen) with a sensitivity of 3.7936 µA·L·mg−1 (0.0664 µA µM−1 mm−2), which was 2.45 times that in strong alkaline conditions without modulation. Additionally, the relative standard deviation of the measurement remained below 2.9% over five days of repeated experiments, indicating excellent stability.

Traditional detection methods such as atomic absorption spectroscopy offer high sensitivity and accuracy for heavy metal ion detection; however, they are often limited to laboratory environments due to bulky equipment and complex procedures. To meet the demand for rapid on-site detection, this study employs electrochemical analysis and utilizes Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) technology to fabricate a microelectrode sensor chip for the electrochemical detection of heavy metal ions, Hg(II) and As(III). Nano-gold particles were electrodeposited on the sensing area of the working electrode of this chip using a constant-potential deposition method. Uniform distribution of the nanoparticles was obtained, which enhanced the effective specific surface area and electrochemical activity of the working electrode. Therefore, wide detection concentration ranges for Hg(II) of 5 to 1000 µg/L and for As(III) of 5 to 5000 µg/L were displayed, with detection limits of 1.4 µg/L and 2.4 µg/L, respectively. Moreover, the sensor exhibited satisfactory reproducibility, stability and anti-interference capability. These characteristics enable the developed microelectrode sensor chip to be utilized in the monitoring of a diverse range of pollution sources.

Climate warming has profound effects on terrestrial ecosystems, with biodiversity playing a crucial role in modulating ecosystem productivity responses. While extensive studies have investigated how plant species richness (α-diversity) influences aboveground productivity under warming conditions, the contributions of plant and soil microbial β-diversity to belowground net primary productivity (BNPP) remain poorly understood. In this study, we conducted a 6-year warming experiment in an alpine meadow to investigate the response patterns and drivers of BNPP, as well as the α- and β-diversity of plant and soil microbial communities. Our results showed that warming increased BNPP by 41.41%-90.3%, with biodiversity metrics collectively accounting for about 86% of the variation in BNPP. Notably, while climate warming significantly reduced the α-diversity of both plant (p = 0.067) and soil bacterial communities (p < 0.05), soil bacterial β-diversity showed a marked increase. The enhancement in soil bacterial β-diversity was closely linked to increased gene abundance associated with ammonification and nitrification processes, identified as key drivers of BNPP under warming conditions. These findings underscore the pivotal role of soil microbial β-diversity in supporting BNPP under warming conditions. Our study highlights the need to preserve belowground microbial heterogeneity to maintain ecosystem functioning and enhance carbon sequestration efforts in the face of global climate change.

A microelectrode sensor chip was fabricated using MEMS technology for the electrochemical detection of heavy metal ions, Hg(II) and As(III), and nano-gold particles were deposited on the working electrode surface of these chips using a constant potential deposition method. Scanning electron microscopy was used to characterize the surface. The modified microelectrode sensor chips were used to quantitatively detect Hg(II) and As(III), over a wide concentration range under hydrochloric acid electrolyte conditions using differential pulse voltammetry. The concentration of Hg(II) and As(III) showed a segmented linear relationship with the oxidation peak current. The detection range for Hg(II) is 1 to 1000 μg/L, and for As(III) it is 5 to 5000 μg/L, with detection limits of 1.4 μg/L and 2.4 μg/L, respectively.

Harmonizing economic growth and carbon emissions is key to reaching the “dual carbon” targets. This research centers on the seven key urban agglomerations within the Yellow River Basin (YRB) and establishes an integrated research framework of decoupling effect quantification–spatial association recognition–driving factor analysis. By combining the Tapio decoupling model, a modified gravity model, social network analysis (SNA), and the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method, the study systematically evaluates the decoupling states, spatial association structure, and driving mechanisms between regional carbon emissions and economic growth from 2001 to 2020. The results show that: (1) All seven urban agglomerations exhibit a simultaneous upward trend in both carbon emissions and GDP, but significant regional disparities exist, with some agglomerations demonstrating a green growth pattern where economic growth outpaces carbon emissions. (2) Weak decoupling is the predominant type among urban agglomerations and their constituent cities in the YRB. Notably, some regions have regressed to growing connection or growing negative decoupling during 2016–2020. (3) The spatial network of carbon emission decoupling effects exhibits a core-periphery structure characterized by stronger eastern regions and weaker western regions, with the Shandong Peninsula and Guanzhong Plain urban agglomerations serving as core nodes for regional linkage. (4) Per capita GDP and technological level play a dominant role in promoting decoupling, while energy intensity and the population carrying intensity of the real economy are the primary inhibiting factors; the impact of industrial structure shows an unstable direction. Grounded in these findings, this study formulates differentiated carbon reduction pathways tailored to regional heterogeneity, providing theoretical insights and actionable guidance to facilitate the low-carbon transition and coordinated governance of urban agglomerations.

In this study, a sensor based on a three-dimensional gold micropillar array of working electrodes was designed and fabricated using microfluidic chip technology and electrochemical methods. The geometrical parameters of the micropillar working electrode array were optimized through simulation analysis to enhance the efficiency of the electrochemical reaction. The main results showed that the developed sensor exhibited a high sensitivity of -0.032 μA (μmol L-1)-1 for phosphate with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.7 μmol L-1 (S/N = 3) and a correlation coefficient of 0.99, which demonstrated a good linear relationship in the concentration range of 5-50 μmol L-1. In the consistency and stability tests, the sensor showed a low relative standard deviation (RSD = 1.3%) and only a 7% drop in response current over 30 days, demonstrating its long-term stability. In the ion interference test, common water ions had little effect on the sensor's detection performance, demonstrating good resistance to interference. The sensor can be applied to the real-time detection of phosphate in groundwater.

Maintaining community stability has profound positive impacts on the ecological functions and sustainable utilization of grassland ecosystems. Numerous studies have explored how community stability responds to climate change and its relationship with plant species diversity. Nevertheless, the impact and underlying mechanisms of belowground ecosystem multifunctionality (BGEMF) on community stability along a precipitation gradient in alpine grasslands remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted field surveys from 2015 to 2020, measuring plant species diversity, annual net primary productivity (ANPP), and soil physicochemical properties across 79 sites in alpine grassland ecosystems on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Our findings highlight both plant species diversity (standardized total effect: 32 %) and BGEMF (standardized total effect: 75 %) had an indirect effect on stability viaregulating mean ANPP within alpine grasslands. Furthermore, mean annual precipitation substantially impacted both plant species diversity and BGEMF, subsequently affecting community stability. However, temperature had a strong negative regulatory effect on species diversity, the mean and variability of ANPP. Thus, we emphasized the pivotal role of plant species diversity and BGEMF in shaping community stability, and stated the imperative need for species conservation and BGEMF improvement to sustain alpine ecosystems in the face of ongoing climate change.

Shrubland functions as an important carbon sink. However, uncertainties have still persisted regarding shrubland C storage and its underlying drivers. In this study, we conducted a field survey encompassing 45 sites to investigate all sectors of C stocks in shrublands distributed in northern China, in order to accurately estimate the regional C storage and to explore the potential drivers. Our results showed that the total C density of shrubland was 78.78 Mg C ha(-1), with soil C density, vegetation C density and litter C density contributing 75.16, 2.99 and 0.64 Mg C ha(-1), respectively. Distinct C density sectors were driven by different factors: vegetation C density was primarily driven by plant community richness, litter C density by shrub diversity and soil C density by total annual sunshine and soil total phosphorus in our study. Climate factors, plant community traits and soil properties independently explained 5.15%, 6.79% and 23.73% variation of the shrubland ecosystem C density, respectively. Furthermore, the interactions between community structural traits and climate factors, as well as between community structural traits and soil properties, can explain 10.44% and 18.50% of the variation, respectively. Our findings, based on direct field measurements, refined estimates of C storage in shrubland ecosystems in northern China, and these findings provided crucial data for the validation and parameterization of C models both within China and globally.

In arid regions, the ecological restoration of limestone tailings requires sustainable strategies, yet the synergistic effects of substrate optimization and native plant selection remain poorly understood. In this study, we systematically evaluated substrate amendments and native species for rehabilitating limestone tailings in Northern China’s arid zone using a controlled pot experiment. An orthogonal L9(34) experimental design was employed to test three factors: the soil-to-tailings ratio (1:2, 1:1, and 2:1), moisture level (30%, 45%, and 60% of field capacity), and nitrogen addition (0, 5, and 10 g N m−2). Five native grass species (Pennisetum centrasiaticum, Setaria viridis, Leymus chinensis, Achnatherum splendens, and Eleusine indica) were grown under these treatment conditions, and plant biomass and key soil nutrient variables were measured. Stepwise regression, structural equation modeling, and principal component analysis were applied to assess plant growth responses and soil nutrient dynamics. The results indicated that a 2:1 soil-to-tailings substrate maintained at 60% moisture content maximized biomass production across all species. Soil total potassium consistently correlated positively with biomass (Standardized β: 0.397–0.603), whereas available potassium showed a negative relationship (Standardized β: −0.825–−0.391). Nutrient dynamics ultimately governed biomass accumulation, accounting for 57.8–84.2% of the biomass variation. P. centrasiaticum ranked as the most effective species, followed by S. viridis, L. chinensis, A. splendens, and E. indica. We concluded that successful restoration under these experimental conditions hinged on key factors: using a 2:1 soil-to-tailings substrate, maintaining 60% soil moisture, and strategically combining deep-rooted P. centrasiaticum with shallow-rooted S. viridis to exploit complementary resource use. This work provides fundamental data and a conceptual framework for rehabilitating arid limestone tailings in similar ecological settings, based on controlled experimental evidence.