China's new national park system prioritizes the conservation of large-scale ecosystems to maintain ecological integrity, exemplified by Qilian Mountain National Park (QMNP) in northwestern China. QMNP straddles both pristine and pastoral landscapes and provides critical habitat for diverse migratory and resident birds as key stopover and breeding grounds. In this region, centuries of pastoralism have shaped grassland structure and biodiversity. However, spatial distribution patterns of avian species across the heterogeneous, coupled natural and pastoral landscapes of the Tibetan Plateau remain poorly understood due to persistently low detection rates resulting from high species richness, vast distribution ranges, and extensive landscape heterogeneity. To address this, we combined field surveys with functional guild-based Bayesian hierarchical occupancy modeling to elucidate guild-specific spatial distributions and their environmental drivers. Over the three consecutive summers of 2022-2024, we surveyed 72 line transects and 27 fixed observation points, recording 40 species classified into three functional guilds (small-sized, medium-sized and raptors). Vegetation cover and slope gradient were the primary determinants of guild distributions: small-sized birds strongly preferred patches of dense vegetation and avoided hotspots of medium-sized birds, whereas raptors favored gentle slopes. Furthermore, effects of growing season precipitation, distance to water, and human activity varied substantially among guilds in both magnitude and direction. These findings reveal distinct guild-specific habitat selection patterns driven by environmental filtering. Our findings demonstrate that extensive natural-pastoral landscapes remain crucial for avifauna despite traditional pastoral practices, and that functional trait-based modeling can effectively address the significant low-detection challenge in remote, biodiversity-rich grassland ecosystems of the Tibetan Plateau.

Baer's Pochard (Aythya baeri), a diving duck endemic to eastern Asia, has once experienced a significant population decline and was classified as "Critically Endangered" in 2012. However, the factors contributing to this decline remain poorly understood. Nest survival is a crucial demographic parameter that significantly influences avian population dynamics and is often correlated with various environmental factors and the breeding period. We conducted research on its breeding biology from 2019 to 2022, documenting a total of 108 nests with laying dates ranging from 25 April to 15 July. The nest success rate was 24.97%. Predation was the primary cause of nest failure, accounting for 44.66% of nest failures, followed by desertion (17.48%), flooding (7.77%), and egg collecting by local people (6.80%). The analysis of the factors affecting daily nest survival indicated that daily nest survival was positively correlated with the height above water and the distance to shore of mound where they nested, but negatively correlated with the laying date. We suggest that controlling nest predation, providing suitable nesting sites, and maintaining suitable water levels are crucial for ensuring the nesting success of Baer's Pochard.

Food serves as the fundamental source of energy for animal survival and reproduction, directly shaping individual fitness and population dynamics, and has therefore long been a central focus in animal ecology. Traditional approaches to studying wildlife diet, including direct observation, pellet analysis, and camera monitoring, demand intensive field sampling and specialized expertise, and are generally confined to the breeding or wintering seasons. In recent years, emerging techniques such as stable isotope analysis and DNA barcoding have expanded dietary research. However, large-scale spatiotemporal investigations remain scarce. With the rise of citizen science, analyses based on web-sourced photographic data now offer novel opportunities for advancing dietary studies. Here, we aimed to: (1) quantify seasonal and latitudinal variation in diet composition; and (2) examine seasonal and latitudinal variation in prey size in the Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). To address these aims, we systematically collected 80,158 photographs of the Common Kestrel worldwide from 1973 to April 2025 via the Macaulay Library. We identified 1708 independent predation events, of which 1693 were retained for detailed analysis. Kestrels primarily preyed on mammals (36.4%) but also consumed invertebrates (14.9%), reptiles (14.6%), birds (11.9%), and, rarely, amphibians (0.2%), with 21.9% of prey remaining unidentified. Dietary composition exhibited significant variation across both seasons and latitudes: mammals contributed a higher proportion of the diet in winter and at higher latitudes, whereas predation on invertebrates increased in autumn and at lower latitudes. We found no significant seasonal variation in prey size, and no overall latitudinal trend. However, mammal prey size decreased significantly with increasing latitude. These findings provide the first large-scale quantification of spatiotemporal variation in the diet of the Common Kestrel, offering new insights into its feeding ecology and adaptive foraging strategies. Furthermore, this work highlights the value and applicability of citizen science image data for advancing raptor dietary research at continental scales.

The global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019 led many countries to implement lockdown policies, providing a unique opportunity to study the behavioral response mechanisms of animals to human activity disturbances. The Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon), as a typical human-associated species, is highly sensitive to changes in the intensity of human activities. To investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the behavior of Crested Ibis, this study used alert distance and flight initiation distance as indicators to examine wild Crested Ibis populations in Yang County and surrounding areas of Hanzhong City, Shaanxi Province, before the pandemic (2013 and 2018), during the pandemic (2021), and after the pandemic (2023 and 2025). The results showed that: (1) Before the pandemic, there was no significant difference in alert distance and flight initiation distance of Crested Ibis (2013 vs. 2018, P > 0.05); (2) During the pandemic, the flight initiation distance of Crested Ibis was significantly shorter than before the pandemic (P < 0.05), but alert distance did not decrease significantly (P > 0.05); (3) After the lockdown was lifted, both alert distance and flight initiation distance of Crested Ibis were significantly lower than during the pandemic (P < 0.05) and tended to stabilize (2023 vs. 2025, P > 0.05). The study indicates that the behavioral tolerance of Crested Ibis to human activities remained stable before the pandemic, increased significantly during the pandemic, and maintained a new stable state at a higher level after the pandemic compared to before, with no rebound observed. This finding reveals significant plasticity in the behavioral response of Crested Ibis to human disturbance and can provide an important case study for understanding the behavioral adaptation strategies of wildlife under sudden public events.

Abstract Carnivores play a key role in maintaining ecosystem structure, function, and ecological processes. Understanding the coexistence mechanisms of sympatric species with similar niches is a central question in community ecology and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we applied DNA metabarcoding techniques to analyse the dietary composition and trophic niche partitioning between two sympatric canids on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the Tibetan fox (V. ferrilata). Our results indicated that the winter diet of the red fox primarily consisted of Ochotonidae, Cricetidae, and Bovidae, whereas the Tibetan fox mainly consumed Ochotonidae, Spalacidae, and Cricetidae. Despite dietary niche overlap, significant differences were detected in both dietary composition and richness (P < .05). Further analysis indicated that the Tibetan fox had a significantly narrower niche breadth than the red fox (P < .05), indicating clear divergence in foraging strategies between these two congeneric canids. We demonstrated that the red fox and Tibetan fox achieve stable coexistence via divergent foraging strategies, generalist vs. specialist, respectively. These findings provide key insights into the mechanisms underpinning the coexistence of sympatric mesocarnivores, and offer critical empirical support for the conservation management of alpine carnivore communities.

The post-fledging period, extending from fledging to independence, is a crucial life stage characterized by high mortality due to fledglings' limited mobility and inexperience. During this stage, fledglings gradually increase their mobility, leave their parents, disperse from their natal site, and respond to the challenges of new environments. Characterizing these post-fledging movements and space use is essential for understanding juvenile survival strategies and devising targeted conservation measures. The Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon), an endangered species and a highly protected animals at the national level in China, has seen limited research on its post-fledging movements and space use. From 2015 to 2023, we utilized biologgers, combined with field surveys, to study the movement and space use characteristics of 37 fledglings in Hanzhong City, Shaanxi Province, China, over a two-month post-fledging period. We quantified changes in activity levels (based on overall dynamic body acceleration), independence timing, onset of post-fledging dispersal, habitat selection, and daily activity rhythms after independence. Our results revealed individuals began independent living 26.23 ± 2.34 days post-fledging and onset of dispersal at 25.58 ± 2.33 days, with a range area at the natal of 2.08 ± 0.56 km2. The initial 30 days post-fledging are characterized as an ontogenetic phase marked by a rapid increase in body activity level. Fledglings preferred paddy fields during the independent period rather than the forests they relied on before independence. Interestingly, the daily activity rhythm, particularly foraging behavior, peaked at noon—contrasting with the expected morning and evening activity peaks—likely as an adaptation to avoid periods of peak human activity. Additionally, drowning, collisions, and predation in paddy fields are noteworthy causes of fledgling mortality. Consequently, we recommend protecting a 2-km2 area around the nest site for at least two-month post-fledging, implementing safety measures around power lines and cesspools. Additionally, reducing human disturbances near foraging habitats and expanding space within paddy fields would help mitigate survival pressures on fledglings.

The roe deer ( Capreolus pygargus ), a medium-sized ungulate widely distributed across Eurasia, Its existence is crucial for maintaining biodiversity. Wild release is an important means to restore its wild population. However, studies on the spatial utilization patterns and adaptability of released individuals are still scarce. This study focused on 10 roe deer (2 males and 8 females) released in the Wuling Mountain Nature Reserve in Beijing, using GPS collars for tracking (from June 2021 to March 2025), combined with Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) and Linear Mixed Models (LMM), to analyze their home range size, seasonal variations, and vertical migration patterns, in order to evaluate the spatial adaptation strategies of the released individuals and provide scientific basis for subsequent reintroduction plans. The results showed that the average 50% core home range area of the released roe deer was 0.28 ± 0.21 km², and the 95% home range area was 1.76 ± 1.16 km². There was no significant difference between male and female individuals. The average area of the roe deer during winter and autumn was significantly larger than that in summer, and the activity range was the largest in winter. When the temperature was lower, the roe deer's activity altitude was lower (about 700 m), and when the temperature was higher, the roe deer began to move to the 900 m altitude range. In summer, the roe deer mostly moved to high-altitude areas, while in winter, the roe deer were significantly active in lower-altitude areas. This study not only provides scientific basis for the population recovery of roe deer but also offers references for the wild release and habitat management strategies of other ungulates.

ABSTRACTThe risk of predation has always been a significant impact on wild birds. Birds, facing with limited energy, must balance their investment between foraging and vigilance. There were currently limited understandings of the vigilant behavior feedback of birds under different hunger pressure. Therefore, we employed the White‐browed laughingthrush (Pterorhinus sannio) and White wagtail (Motacilla alba) as research subjects to carry out experiments in winter, in exploring the tolerance of birds to external stress under different hunger pressure. After a night of energy expenditure, individuals of both species faced greater hunger pressure in the morning. The results of general linear models showed that the flight initiation distance (FID) of both species in the morning (7:00–9:00) was significantly shorter than that in the evening (16:00–18:00). Additionally, when the weather was cold (daily minimum temperature ≤ 5°C), the FID of the White‐browed laughingthrush and White wagtail was significantly shorter in the morning, as same as the results of general linear models. However, when the weather was warm (daily minimum temperature ≥ 10°C), there was no significant difference even though the FID average of both species was shorter in the morning than in the evening. These suggested that the consumption and supplementation of energy are very important for birds, as the higher their hunger pressure, the greater their willingness to forage and take on risk, especially in cold winter.

The risk-benefit trade-off theory is a fundamental concept in the study of animal behavior strategies and remains a prominent topic in animal ecology. Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) foraging alongside ungulates has garnered considerable attention. Previous research has highlighted the impact of ungulates on disturbing grassland insects, leading to increased foraging success for Cattle Egrets. However, the risk-benefit relationship from an anti-predator perspective remains underexplored. This study, conducted in Yang County, Shaanxi Province, China, focused on Cattle Egrets and compared the foraging efficiency and flight initiation distance (FID) when foraging alongside cattle (Bos spp.) versus foraging alone. Additionally, our study analyzed the impact of increasing cattle numbers on the FID to assess whether foraging with cattle enhances the perceived safety. We hypothesized that, with more cattle, Cattle Egrets would be less vigilant if they can gain vigilance advantages from cattle. The results indicated significantly higher foraging efficiency and lower FID for Cattle Egrets when foraging with cattle compared to foraging alone, suggests that the presence of cattle enables Cattle Egrets to better tolerate potential predation risks. However, more cattle did not significantly affect the FID, indicating that the perceived predation risk of Cattle Egrets did not reduce with more cattle. The lower FID of Cattle Egrets when foraging with cattle is more likely attributed to higher foraging efficiency rather than lower perceived predation risk in their risk-benefit trade-off. This study explores the mechanism of Cattle Egrets foraging with cattle from an anti-predation perspective, enhancing understanding of this phenomenon and contributing to the risk-benefit trade-off hypothesis.

Numerous studies have examined the correlation between offspring quantity and quality, and many have found that the most common brood size is often smaller than broods with the highest offspring quality or production. However, the reasons why these small broods with lower offspring quality are produced are still poorly explained. Using data spanning 29 years, we investigated the effects of brood size on nestlings’ body mass and the lifetime fitness for those offspring as adults (as proxies of offspring quality) in the Crested Ibis ( Nipponia nippon ). We also examined the temporal variation of brood size. We found that overall offspring quality increases with brood size and that individuals from broods of three had the highest quality, as quantified by larger body mass, higher adult survival, and lifetime reproductive success. Furthermore, the brood size of an individual pair significantly varied across years, and the proportion of broods containing two offspring increased while broods of three decreased after 2000 when the population dispersed to low-quality habitat. These findings indicate that spatiotemporal variation in resources may impact variation in brood size and subsequent fitness consequences, and that small broods are more common in resource-poor years or low-quality habitats. In contrast, parents with access to high-quality resources produce larger broods of nestlings that achieve higher body mass and subsequently experience higher adult survival and lifetime fitness. This study highlights how variation in life history traits can be influenced by resource condition and provides an insight into particular habitats that need conservation for Crested Ibis. Significance statement Although life history theory predicts a trade-off between offspring quantity and quality, and that fewer, high-quality offspring are expected to be more common to prolong one’s own survival prospect in long-lived species, birds, mammals, and humans often show a positive correlation for these traits. Why do parents produce small broods with lower offspring quality? Here, we found that offspring quality—such as nestlings’ body mass, survival, and the lifetime reproductive success of offspring as adults—increased overall with brood size, up to broods of three of Crested Ibis. Brood size varied across years; in particular, pairs appear to produce smaller broods of nestlings that have lower body mass and lifetime fitness in resource-poor years or lower-quality habitats. This long-term study helps to advance our understanding of the fitness consequences and ecological mechanisms that impact offspring quantity and quality in long-lived animals.

Although dispersal is a key driver of population dynamics and species distributions, we still know little about how it affects the dynamics of endangered and restricted-range species. Density-dependent effects on dispersal in particular may be critical for the range expansion of recovering populations. After 1981, when the last 7 wild individuals of Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon) were discovered in China, the species remained confined to a single location ("original nesting area") until 2000 (< 24 breeding pairs). Then, the breeding population began a significant spatial and numerical expansion toward new breeding sites ("secondary nesting areas"). Our analyses of long-term (1993-2017) individual resighting data (n = 193) found that natal dispersal was common (similar to 77.2%), whereas breeding dispersal was rare (similar to 2.1%). Breeding density was negatively related to productivity, and natal dispersal was more likely toward low-density areas. The Weibull distribution provided the best fit to the observed dispersal distances, indicating the presence of long-distance natal dispersers. Although we cannot rule out the effect of dispersal mechanisms inherent in the species regardless of density, our findings suggest that the probability of natal dispersal is density-dependent, implying a role for intraspecific competition in the Crested Ibis spreading in the region. We expect the Crested Ibis to spread throughout the region if conservation programs can identify and protect potential reintroduction areas at a large spatial scale to allow dispersing Crested Ibis to settle into new and low-density breeding areas.

2017年7月—2020年6月,在陕南地区进行调查监测过程中,共收集到朱鹮(Nip-ponia nippon)死亡个体273只,其中包括雏鸟15只、幼鸟153只、成鸟105只.对其死亡时间、地域分布和原因进行分析.结果表明:朱鹮的死亡时间主要集中在5—8月和1—2月;洋县境内死亡朱鹮数量占死亡总数的70％以上;朱鹮死亡原因包括疾病、机械性损伤、天敌捕食、坠巢、溺水、电击、盗猎、中毒、先天残疾,自然灾害以及其他未知死因共11类.

朱鹮(Nipponia nippon)野生种群目前仅分布在陕西省洋县及邻近的城固、西乡、南郑、汉台、勉县、宁强、留坝、汉阴等9个县区,数量达到2 500余只,但对其野外伤病和收容救治状况报道较少.陕西汉中朱鹮国家级自然保护区在2016至2019年的巡护和监测过程中,共发现并收容救治野生朱鹮伤病个体362只.本文利用双因素方差方法分析了伤病朱鹮的来源、年龄结构、季节性差异、收治时间、伤病情况、救治效果和放归后监测情况.结果发现,野生朱鹮幼鸟收容救助数量显著高于成鸟,夏季主要救助幼鸟,冬季为成鸟;朱鹮救助的主要伤病类型为饥饿、外伤、骨折、疾病、坠巢和残疾.饥饿、坠巢和外伤个体救治后痊愈放归比例较高,而疾病和骨折的死亡率较高.本文探讨了野生朱鹮收容救助数量逐年增多、救助个体主要为幼鸟、存在季节性差异等特点.建议急需增强救助中心收容救助能力,建立朱鹮收容救治网络,完善野外救助工作.

Summary Understanding how birds select breeding sites plays an important role in habitat protection, especially for the conservation of endangered species. With the increase in population size of the endangered Crested Ibis Nipponia nippon, its distribution range has expanded from mountain areas to plains located outside protected areas, representing a new challenge for conservation of the species. Identifying the current nesting habitat requirements is thus needed and can provide valuable information for the planning of new nature reserves. In this research, we surveyed a total of 117 nests across the whole distribution range from 2015 to 2019. We used generalized linear mixed-effects models to assess nesting preferences of the Crested Ibis in the wild. Results showed that in mountain areas, Masson pines Pinus massoniana were preferred (64.6%), whereas elms Ulmus pumila (44.9%) and aspens Populus davidiana (40.6%) were used more frequently lower down, probably because of their higher availability. In both mountain areas and plains the ibises selected tall nesting trees with larger diameter at breast height and preferred nesting rather high above ground, especially in plains where taller trees provided higher suitable nesting positions. The ibises also preferred nesting close to tree trunks, especially in mountain areas, probably for more safety from collapsing. Furthermore, in mountain areas, slope and distance to path had positive effects on nesting occurrence, and understorey coverage was avoided by nesting ibises, while these variables had little impact in plains. Our results indicate that, despite their range expansion, Crested Ibises rely on very specific habitat characteristics for nesting. We suggest relatively tall trees like elms and aspens should be preserved in plains. In addition, we highlight how selection patterns of Crested Ibises may vary, and that such variation should be addressed in conservation planning, especially in future reintroduction.

朱鹮Nipponia nippon属国家一级重点保护野生动物,被世界自然保护联盟濒危物种红色名录列为濒危(EN).目前野生朱鹮主要分布于陕西省洋县及其周边区域.本调查以陕西汉中朱鹮国家级自然保护区为研究区域,运用ENVI 4.0和ArcGIS 10.2通过支持向量机法制成农田分布图,随机抽取12条样线以1.8 km·h-1的步行速度用10×42双筒望远镜统计朱鹮的数量.本研究将样线上的农田分为未翻犁蓄水稻田、翻犁蓄水稻田、翻犁未蓄水稻田、未翻犁未蓄水稻田、旱地和撂荒地6种类型,利用选择系数和选择指数衡量朱鹮对觅食地的选择.在7条朱鹮活动频繁的样线上随机抽取28个1 m×1 m的样方,统计样方内底栖动物的丰富度.结果表明,越冬期朱鹮偏好选择未翻犁蓄水稻田,选择指数为0.49±0.11,且偏好在水深3～6 cm的水田上觅食,选择指数为0.16±0.21.水田中底栖动物以昆虫为主,占总生物数量的64.02％.未翻犁蓄水田和翻犁蓄水田底栖动物的密度均没有显著差异.上述结果表明,冬季朱鹮更倾向于在未翻犁、蓄水深度为3～6 cm的水田中觅食.

Background Interspecific competition is known to be strongest between those species that are both closely related and sympatric. Egrets are colonially nesting wetland birds that often overlap and can therefore be expected to compete in roosting and nesting habitat as well as in diet. According to the niche partitioning hypothesis, it is to be expected that these similar species would show differentiation in at least one of the main niche dimensions to reduce competition. We tested niche partitioning between the colonially nesting Little Egret ( Egretta garzetta ) and Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) in temporal, spatial and trophic dimensions. Methods Field study was conducted in three mixed egret colonies in Yangxian County, southwest Shaanxi Province, central China. For each nest colony we recorded its spatial location, the height of nesting trees and of nests, the height of roosting trees and of roosting individuals within the trees. We determined the first egg-laying and first hatching dates of the two species. Craw dissection of storm-killed egret nestlings was used to measure the diet. Six transects were surveyed to study foraging habitat selection. Results We found that hatching time of Little Egrets peaked earlier (by about 1 month) than that of Cattle Egrets. Cattle Egrets nested and roosted higher than Little Egrets. The foraging habitats used by Little Egrets were dominated by river banks (73.49%), followed by paddy fields (13.25%) and reservoirs (10.84%), whereas Cattle Egret foraging sites were characterized by grasslands (44.44%), paddy fields (33.33%) and river banks (22.22%). Little Egrets consumed more fishes (65.66%) and Odonata larvae (13.69%) than Cattle Egrets, while Cattle Egrets were found feeding mainly on Coleoptera (29.69%) and Orthoptera (23.29%). Little Egrets preyed on larger mean biomasses of food items than Cattle Egrets. Conclusions Our results confirm the niche partitioning hypothesis as a mechanism for coexistence among ecologically similar species. In two coexisting egret species, niche partitioning is multidimensional, such that the two coexistent species occupy differing ecological space based on all three temporal, spatial and trophic niche dimensions.

随着从严治党的全面推进,定期召开支部党员大会、支委会、党小组会,按时上好党课的"三会一课"制度在高校基层党支部逐步得到规范化执行.但是,在执行过程中,各高校仍不同程度地存在"重业务,轻党建"、支部委员会的组织力不够强、党员的教育管理不够严格、党员在思想上对"三会一课"制度认识不到位或重视度不够、"三会一课"制度的实施在内容和形式等方面比较单一等问题.特别是在党课教育方面,"重视不够""形式不新""内容不活""以会代课""照本宣科""效果不佳"等问题突出,传统党课仍以纯理论知识灌输为主,教学形式创新乏力、互动性较差,没有建立过程监督和评价制度.这都使高校传统的党课教育模式难以适应当前的新形势和新环境.为此,北京林业大学生态与自然保护学院湿地学教师党支部积极创新党课模式,开展了"主讲主问主评式"党课的实践探索,在对党课模式创新背景进行分析的基础上,明确了"主讲主问主评式"党课新模式的内涵,并结合实践案例对筹备、集中授课、总结提升等3个阶段的实施步骤进行了总结;同时,对实践中需要注意的"讲什么""谁来讲""问什么""如何问""评什么""怎么评"等问题进行了深入探讨."主讲主问主评式"党课新模式的实践探索取得了一定成效,创新了党课形式,增强了理论学习效果;搭建了实践平台,提升了基层党支部成员的素养;激发了基层党支部的活力,发挥了其示范带动作用.

该研究通过对1986-2019年150起实验室事故的类型、危险因素、环节以及原因进行统计学分析.结果表明,火灾、爆炸和毒害性事故是实验室安全事故的主要类型,死亡比例最高的为爆炸;生物安全事故虽然不是主要类型,但是造成人员伤害比例最高.在统计分析的基础上,该文从危险化学品、仪器设备以及生物安全等方面展开讨论,提出有效预防实验室事故发生的安全管理对策,对加强实验室安全管理具有一定的参考意义.

The silver spoon hypothesis proposes that individuals which develop under favorable conditions will gain fitness benefits throughout their lifetime. Hatching order may create a considerable size hierarchy within a brood and lead to earlier-hatched nestlings having a competitive advantage over their siblings, which has been illustrated in some studies. However, there have been few explorations into the effect on subsequent generations. Here, using a 15-year-long study, we investigated the long-term fitness consequences of hatching order in the endangered crested ibis, Nipponia nippon, a species with complete hatching asynchrony. In this study, we found strong support for silver spoon effects acting on hatching order. Compared with later-hatched nestlings, first-hatched nestlings begin reproduction at an earlier age, have higher adult survival rates, possess a longer breeding life span, and achieve higher lifetime reproductive success. Interestingly, we found carry-over effects of hatching order into the next generation. Nestlings which hatched earlier and became breeders in turn also produced nestlings with larger tarsus and better body condition. Additionally, we found a positive correlation among life-history traits in crested ibis. Individuals which started reproduction at a younger age were shown to possess a longer breeding life span, and the annual brood size increased with an individual's breeding life span. This suggests that the earlier-hatched nestlings are of better quality and the silver spoon effects of hatching order cover all life-history stages and next generation effects.

Visual foragers joining mixed-species flocks can enhance foraging and obtain antipredator benefits. However, relatively little is known about the benefits that tactile foragers may obtain by joining mixed-species groups. We investigated the foraging and antipredator benefits that the Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon), an endangered species, may get while foraging in single-species flocks and in mixed-species flocks with Little Egrets (Egretta garzetta) during the nonbreeding season. We found that in single-species flocks ibises decreased the proportion of time spent vigilant and increased that spent foraging as total flock size increased. Flight initiation distance (FID, distance between a threat and the animal when the latter flees) decreased with flock size particularly in single-species flocks and alert distance (AD, distance between a threat and the animal first exhibiting alert behavior) decreased with flock size in both single-and mixed-species flocks, but was greater in mixed-species flocks. Taken together, these findings suggest that Crested Ibises may use risk dilution, but not collective detection, in single-species flocks, but use dilution, collective detection, and early warning in mixed-species flocks. We also found partial support for the resource exploitative competition hypothesis as probing bout duration increased with flock size. This tactile forager may benefit from joining mixed-species flocks with a visual forager by using collective detection and early warning (responding to the antipredator signals of the other species), but also tolerate some intraspecific competition in mixed-species flocks through resource depletion effects. Our findings have management implications that could be applied to the protection of this endangered species.