Non-transecting peripheral nerve injuries require effective inflammation control, support of axon regeneration, and strategies that minimize additional surgical trauma. Injectable hydrogels are attractive carriers for local therapy, and chitosan is a widely used biocompatible matrix; however, conventional chitosan systems often depend on acidic dissolution and crosslinking or cytotoxic crosslinkers, which may aggravate nerve injury and hinder clinical translation. Here, we develop an injectable chitosan-based hydrogel (IBU-CS-GP) in which ibuprofen is complexed with chitosan for solubility range expansion toward near-neutral pH, thereby permitting genipin-mediated crosslinking under near-physiological pH and resolving the mismatch between chitosan solubility and the optimal pH for genipin. The resulting hydrogel forms a stable depot after perineural injection, enabling minimally invasive in situ gelation and localized drug delivery. We characterize its physicochemical properties, ibuprofen release profile, and biosafety, and evaluate its immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative effects in vitro and in a rat sciatic nerve crush model. In vitro, the IBU-CS-GP hydrogel suppresses macrophage inflammatory activation and reduces pro-inflammatory mediator production, thereby promoting a repair-supportive phenotype; in parallel, it indirectly enhances endothelial and stromal cell activities involved in angiogenesis and matrix remodeling. In vivo, perineural injection results in sustained ibuprofen release, accompanied by accelerated recovery of gait and nerve conduction, better preservation of gastrocnemius muscle mass and architecture, and more organized axon regeneration. These data suggest that the IBU-CS-GP hydrogel is a promising minimally invasive local therapy for non-transecting peripheral nerve injuries, as it enables near-neutral-pH in situ gelation and modulates the post-injury microenvironment.

Inspired by biological tissues, this study presents a "multidimensional network synergistic enhancement" strategy to fabricate a high-performance composite hydrogel (PSPC) via a one-pot, physically cross-linked method. The material integrates a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA) dual network, reinforced by cellulose nanofibers (CNF), Mg2+ ions, and a multifunctional phytic acid (PA) phase. This synergistic design imparts remarkable mechanical properties, including high tensile strength (2.6 MPa) and toughness (4.6 MJ/m3), alongside exceptional anti-swelling (105%) and anti-freezing (-29 degrees C) capabilities. The inclusion of PA also affords high ionic conductivity (7.8 mS/cm), enabling the 3D printing of flexible sensors with high sensitivity (1% strain) and rapid response (400 ms) for physiological monitoring. This entirely physically cross-linked hydrogel is also fully recyclable, offering a sustainable and novel material concept for advanced, customizable wearable devices.

Tissue repair and regeneration have long been core challenges in biomedical, and the development of functional biomaterials is crucial to addressing these issues. Chitosan, a natural polysaccharide derived from chitin, has garnered significant attention due to its antibacterial activity, antioxidant activity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. However, unmodified chitosan hydrogels exhibit inherent limitations, such as low mechanical strength, rapid degradation rate, poor water solubility, and limited drug controlled-release capability, which restrict their practical applications in tissue repair. Modification can significantly optimize the physicochemical and biological properties of chitosan. This review summarizes recent research progress on modified chitosan hydrogels for tissue repair and regeneration. First, it discusses common modification methods, including chemical, physical, and biological approaches, and introduces computational and AI-Driven Design strategies. Then, it elaborates on the applications of modified chitosan hydrogels in various tissue repair scenarios, such as skin wound healing, bone tissue regeneration, cartilage repair, and neural tissue regeneration. Finally, this review analyzes the current challenges faced by modified chitosan hydrogels and outlines future research directions, aiming to provide theoretical references and technical support for developing high-performance chitosan-based hydrogel materials in tissue engineering.

In the field of information encryption and anti-counterfeiting, traditional materials often struggle to meet the requirements of dynamic and multi-dimensional encryption due to slow response speed, poor reversibility, and insufficient environmental adaptability. In this study, a 3D-printable composite hydrogel (PCG-Mo7) with stretchable, frost-resistant, and photochromic properties is constructed to meet the requirements of high-security information encryption and anti-counterfeiting labels. Firstly, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and carboxymethyl chitosan are crosslinked in a glycerol/water binary solvent using a one-pot method to form a high-strength threedimensional network, and glycerol is introduced to enhance flexibility and transparency at low temperatures. Then, ammonium molybdate (Mo7) is incorporated into the hydrogel via immersion to endow the system with reversible Mo6+-Mo5+ photochromism. The PCG-Mo7 hydrogel can achieve a high tensile strength of 2.07 MPa and a breaking elongation of 421 % at room temperature, with an elastic modulus of 0.49 MPa and a toughness of 4.36 MJ/m3. It is worth mentioning that the introduction of nanoclay (Laponite) significantly enhances the storage modulus and shear thinning behavior, providing an ideal rheological window for high-precision 3D printing. By utilizing extrusion-based 3D printing technology, various high-resolution 3D structural labels such as "Z", "J", "X", "U" letters, QR codes, binary codes, etc. have been successfully printed. Under UV irradiation, Mo7 rapidly changes to a blue-green color and can be restored within a few hours through air oxidation or thermal stimulation, achieving a programmable operation of "write-store-erase" cycle. The hydrogel combines the information encoding capabilities of space, color, and time dimensions. It not only has high optical contrast (87 % transparency) and fast color change response (<= 20 s) but also has multiple rewriting stabilities, showing broad application prospects in the fields of dynamic information encryption, anti-counterfeiting identification, and intelligent recognition.

Hydrogels with anti-inflammatory and antibacterial capacity have gained increasing attention in regenerative medicine. Dimethyl itaconate (DMI), a derivative of itaconic acid, exhibits powerful anti-inflammatory activity. Herein, we report a green synthesis of a chitosan-dimethyl itaconate (CS-DMI) conjugate through a nucleophilic substitution reaction, where primary amines of chitosan attack the ester carbonyl groups of DMI to form conjugation under mild alkaline conditions. The resulting conjugate was subsequently crosslinked with genipin into a hydrogel. Our findings indicate that this reaction fundamentally changed the nature of CS, converting it from acidic aqueous solution into a nearly neutral aqueous CS-DMI solution. It improved the efficiency of genipin crosslinking while maintaining the robust antibacterial activity of CS. The CS-DMI hydrogel showed sustained drug release of DMI and greater compression strength over the CS hydrogel. The CS-DMI conjugate showed good cytocompatibility, significantly promoted macrophage polarization toward an M2-like phenotype, reducing reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. In a murine subcutaneous implantation model, the CS-DMI hydrogel significantly reduced immune cell infiltration, primarily by suppressing neutrophil recruitment and promoting a shift in macrophage polarization toward the pro-healing M2 phenotype. These findings confirm a viable strategy for developing multifunctional hydrogels that simultaneously address anti-inflammatory and antibacterial needs for modulating inflammation in regenerative medicine.

The poor aqueous dispersibility and limited residence of cannabidiol (CBD) restrict its topical use in wound management. Here, a CBD-loaded alginate particle/chitosan-gelatin hydrogel (C@A/CG) was developed as a localized topical delivery platform designed to improve CBD loading, provide analytical sink-condition sustained release and support wound repair. CBD was first encapsulated in calcium-crosslinked alginate particles and then embedded into a genipin-crosslinked chitosan-gelatin matrix. The resulting composite hydrogel showed porous morphology, preliminary wet-tissue adhesion, swelling ability, enzymatic degradability and sustained CBD release under methanol-based sink conditions, with 41.5 ± 2.86% release during the first 24 h and 83.9 ± 2.08% cumulative release by day 6. C@A/CG exhibited good hemocompatibility, supported L929 fibroblast viability and migration, and enhanced antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared with the blank hydrogel. In a rat full-thickness skin defect model, C@A/CG accelerated wound closure, improved re-epithelialization, promoted collagen deposition and increased the expression of repair-associated markers including α-SMA, COL1 and COL3. Network pharmacology, molecular docking and western blot analysis suggested that the repair-promoting response was associated with ERBB2/JAK1/STAT3-related signaling changes rather than proving direct pathway causality. These findings support C@A/CG as a CBD-based topical delivery system for wound-healing applications, while release behavior in wound-exudate-mimicking media and pathway-intervention validation remain necessary.

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and information and communication technology (ICT) are reshaping traditional living spaces into intelligent, interconnected ecosystems. However, conventional doors, windows, and curtain materials cannot interface with smart systems, rely on external power, and offer limited functionality in energy management or safety. Here, we report the development of an ionconductive hydrogel smart curtain based on polyacrylamide infused with sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and NaCl through a one-pot polymerization strategy. The resulting PAAM-SLS hydrogel combines high stretchability (elongation at break: 946%) with stable ionic conductivity (0.82 S/m) and exhibits reversible thermoresponsive transparency switching across more than 40 thermal cycles. In addition, the hydrogel demonstrates effective absence of toxic smoke during combustion. These multifunctional attributes enable the hydrogel to function simultaneously as a smart curtain for energy regulation and as a passive fire-alarm indicator. This simple, scalable design highlights the potential of PAAM-SLS hydrogels as next-generation smart home materials, integrating energy efficiency, safety, and intelligent responsiveness.

Conductive double-network (DN) hydrogels are widely used as flexible sensors for human health monitoring and other applications. However, designing multifunctional hydrogels that adapt to diverse environmental conditions remains a challenge. This study introduces a DN hydrogel composed of polyacrylamide (PAM) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), synthesized via a one-pot strategy in a glycerol-water binary solvent. In this system, PAM forms a rigid primary network, while CMC acts as a flexible secondary network through divalent chelation with Ca(2+ )and hydrogen bonding with PAM, significantly enhancing mechanical properties. The hydrogel showed high flexibility, tensile strain (>1550 %), strong adhesion to pig skin (18.3 kPa), and fatigue resistance (800 % static tensile strain over 10 consecutive cycles), which is due to the dynamic hydrogen bonding between glycerol with PAM and CMC. The incorporation of glycerol imparts exceptional freeze and drying resistance, maintaining stability across a broad temperature range (-25 degrees C to 50 degrees C). Rheological analyses revealed that the incorporation of Laponite nanoclay into hydrogels significantly enhanced viscoelasticity, shear-thinning behavior, and printability, making the precursor highly suitable for extrusion-based 3D bioprinting, which is mainly due to the Laponite incorporation partially reduces covalent crosslinking between monomers due to steric effects, while simultaneously introducing physical crosslinking points that enhance the overall network stability. Notably, the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of MXene-incorporated hydrogel reaches 46.3 dB (a 56.16 % improvement) at 5 mm thickness. As a result, the hydrogels exhibit excellent conductivity and strain-sensing performance, enabling reliable detection of both subtle muscle contractions and large joint movements, highlighting their potential for next-generation wearable biosensors and human-machine interfaces. Incorporation of low concentrations silver nanowires (0-600 ppm) enhanced the hydrogels' antibacterial activity, with inhibition zones ranging from 0.46 to 0.62 cm for E. coli and 0.60 to 0.79 cm for S. aureus, achieving up to 95 % and 92 % inhibition, respectively, and highlighting their potential for skin-contact wearable biomedical sensors. These properties make the DN hydrogel prepared in this study a promising candidate for wearable devices and smart sensors in extreme environments.

Immunotherapy has demonstrated promising potential for tumor suppression; however, effectively reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment in osteosarcoma remains challenging. Herein, we developed an immunogel microsphere, CP-MOF@gel, capable of precise PD-L1 protein degradation. This system is based on core-shell nanoparticles with an amorphous ZIF-8 shell encapsulating the photosensitizer Cypate and a proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) molecule ppd (PROTAC PD-L1 degrader), followed by microfluidic and photocuring processes. The synthesis conditions of the CP-MOF are optimized to enhance drug loading and reduce particle size. Acting as a Trojan horse, CP-MOF@gel enables the sustained release of the vanguard CP-MOFs in osteosarcoma. Once internalized by tumor cells, some CP-MOFs generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce photothermal effects under irradiation, triggering pyroptosis through a caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD)-dependent pathway and activating the antitumor immunity. Meanwhile, extracellular CP-MOFs facilitate precise PD-L1 degradation via ppd, thereby enhancing T-cell-mediated tumor cell killing. In vivo studies revealed effective tumor retention of CP-MOF@gel, significantly improving immunotherapy outcomes in osteosarcoma. This work establishes a precision PROTAC-based protein degradation strategy to suppress osteosarcoma and introduces an 'inside-out' therapeutic approach for reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

Stimuli-responsive hydrogels hold immense promise for biomedical applications, but conventional gelation processes often struggle to achieve the precision and complexity required for advanced functionalities such as soft robotics, targeted drug delivery, and tissue engineering. This study introduces a class of 3D-printable magnetic hydrogels with tunable stiffness, adhesion, and magnetic responsiveness, prepared through a simple and efficient “one-pot” method. This approach enables precise control over the hydrogel’s mechanical properties, with an elastic modulus ranging from 43 kPa to 277 kPa, tensile strength from 93 kPa to 421 kPa, and toughness from 243 kJ/m3 to 1400 kJ/m3, achieved by modulating the concentrations of acrylamide (AM) and Fe3O4 nanoparticles. These hydrogels exhibit rapid heating under an alternating magnetic field, reaching 44.4 °C within 600 s at 15 wt%, demonstrating the potential for use in mild magnetic hyperthermia. Furthermore, the integration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and nanoclay into the AM precursor optimizes the rheological properties and ensures high printability, enabling the fabrication of complex, high-fidelity structures through extrusion-based 3D printing. Compared to existing magnetic hydrogels, our 3D-printable platform uniquely combines adjustable mechanical properties, strong adhesion, and multifunctionality, offering enhanced capabilities for use in magnetic actuation and hyperthermia in biomedical applications. This advancement marks a significant step toward the scalable production of next-generation intelligent hydrogels for precision medicine and bioengineering.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the use of photosensitizers (PSs) that, upon activation by specific wavelengths of light, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), including singlet oxygen (1O2) and hydroxyl radicals (·OH), within the targeted tissue, typically tumor cells. The generated ROS induces cellular damage, disrupts cellular processes, and ultimately leads to apoptosis or necrosis of the tumor cells. However, the clinical application of PDT is significantly hindered by the limited tissue penetration ability of light. To address this limitation, laser-free self-luminescent photosensitive systems have emerged as potential solutions for achieving deep-tissue PDT and imaging. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of various laser-independent photosensitive systems, with a particular emphasis on those based on resonance energy transfer (RET), chemically induced electron exchange luminescence (CIEEL), and Cherenkov radiation energy transfer (CRET). The aim is to offer a theoretical framework for the development of novel photodynamic systems and to reassess the application potential of certain previously overlooked photosensitizers (PSs).

Peptide vaccines based on tumor antigens face the challenges of rapid clearance of peptides, low immunogenicity, and immune suppressive tumor microenvironment. However, the traditional solution mainly uses exogenous substances as adjuvants or carriers to enhance innate immune responses, but excessive inflammation can damage adaptive immunity. In the current study, we propose a straightforward novel nanovaccine strategy by employing homologous human ferritin light chain for minimized innate immunity and dendritic cell (DC) targeting, the cationic KALA peptide for enhanced cellular uptake, and suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) siRNA for modulating DC activity. Upon fusing with the KALA peptide, this nanovaccine presents as a novel 40mer cage structure, with highly enriched antigen peptides of proper size (25 nm) for targeted delivery to lymph nodes. The loading of SOCS1 siRNA onto the KALA peptide promoted DC maturation in tumor environment, leading to a 3-fold increase in antigen presentation compared to alum adjuvant. Moreover, it demonstrates remarkable efficacy in suppressing tumor progression and metastasis, together with prolonged survival. In addition, the nanovaccine stimulates up to 40 % memory T cells, thereby achieving sustained protection against tumor re-challenge. This unprecedented nanovaccine platform can ignite fresh interdisciplinary discussions on interactive strategies for future peptide vaccine development.

Herein, the hydrothermal method and post-annealing treatment are employed for preparing three-dimensional NiO microflowers with thin petals (NiO-10) and those with thick petals (NiO-20). The thickness of the assembled petals is considerably influenced by the amount of the NH4F reagent. These porous flowers possess a size of 6-8 mu m with large specific surface area (SSA). NiO-10 exhibits an SSA of 45.1 m2 g- 1 with an average pore size of 17.8 nm, while these values for NiO-20 flowers are 63.2 m2 g- 1 and 11.4 nm. As an important electrode material, these NiO flowers exhibit battery-type electrochemical responses in alkaline electrolytes. The NiO-20 electrode exhibits higher specific capacity (585.9 C g- 1) than that of NiO-10 electrode (504.3 C g- 1). To explore the application potential of these NiO flowers, two hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) are produced by employing NiO (both NiO-10 and NiO-20 individually) as the cathode and activated carbon (AC) as the anode. Both HSCs deliver satisfactory cyclic performance at a high current density (10 A g- 1) even after 6000 cycles. Furthermore, the NiO-20//AC HSC exhibits a remarkable specific energy (51.4 Wh kg- 1) at 968.9 W kg- 1. Alternatively, the energy density of the NiO-10//AC HSC is 39.1 Wh kg- 1 at 863.2 W kg- 1. The method reported herein is effective and economical, making it suitable for the preparation of other transition metal oxide-based high-performance electrode materials along with their promising applications for supercapacitors.

Many studies have shown that buildings account for 30-40 % of total energy consumption worldwide. Due to the high thermal diffusion coefficient of ordinary windows, energy consumption of traditional buildings is relatively high. Therefore, it is very important and necessary to develop building energy-saving technologies to solve these problems. In this work, an anionic surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulfate) with adjustable critical solution temperature is introduced into polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based hydrogels to render the hydrogels phase-transition ability. By adding binary solvents of water and glycerol (GL), the prepared hydrogels show outstanding anti-freezing and anti-drying properties as well as high transparency. In addition, the hydrogels have excellent mechanical and flame-retardant properties. As smart curtains, the hydrogel reported in this work can protect privacy at night, allowing the sunlight to pass through during the day (without consuming additional energy) and effectively reducing indoor temperatures (up to 4.9 degrees C). This hydrogel not only reduces indoor temperature and saves energy, but also has the potential for large-scale industrialization because of the simple preparation process and the use of cost-effective raw materials. This allows the hydrogel to be used in applications such as building facades, energy saving, and privacy protection.

Osteoporosis, a common disorder, is characterized by a systemic reduction in bone mass and structural integrity, resulting in brittle bones. Reducing bone loss and enhancing bone density through oral administration of biopharmaceuticals provides significant advantages, including convenience and non-invasiveness for patients. However, challenges such as poor absorption and enzymatic degradation necessitate the development of innovative drug delivery systems. This research introduces a core-shell hydrogel system inspired by the natural architecture of Longan fruit, constructed from pectin and chitosan biopolymers, designed to create biocapsules and sustain the release of biodrugs. In this system, salmon calcitonin (sCT) was encapsulated within mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and incorporated into the core of the beads. The synthesis of the core-shell hydrogel beads was carefully regulated by adjusting the immersion time and concentration of the crosslinker. The hydrogel beads demonstrated durability, with the pectin shell effectively preventing rapid degradation in the stomach, while the chitosan layer enhanced adhesion to the intestinal walls, safeguarded sCT, and enabled sustained drug release over an extended period of up to 30 h. Furthermore, biocompatibility tests indicated minimal cytotoxicity and hemolysis. Cellular uptake assays demonstrated that the core-shell beads effectively encapsulated sCT and ensured its prolonged release to CT-26 cells. This study presents a promising platform for oral sCT delivery, offering enhanced efficacy, patient compliance, and a potential replacement for injection-based therapies.

In this study, we prepared chemically crosslinked silk fibroin (SF) and sodium alginate (Alg) biomimetic scaffolds reinforced with bioceramic nanohydroxyapatite (nHAp) for bone tissue engineering (BTE) applications. The pore sizes of these scaffolds were effectively controlled by varying the composition of the SF/nHAp/Alg biocomposites. The scaffold prepared with a 40:20:40 SF: nHAp: Alg ratio exhibited excellent swelling properties, reaching over 1700% within 70 min. In vitro degradation studies demonstrated that these biomimetic scaffolds exhibited controlled degradation, taking over 30 days to achieve 50% degradation. The scaffolds also showed good mechanical properties; they maintained structural integrity and did not break, even under a load approximately 800 times their own weight. Additionally, scaffolds loaded with synthetic peptide salmon calcitonin effectively controlled initial burst release and enabled sustained therapeutics delivery for up to two weeks. The biocompatibility of the scaffolds was evaluated using in vitro cell viability and hemolysis assays, which revealed good safety for human dermal fibroblast cells and negligible toxicity to rabbit red blood cells. Importantly, the scaffolds promoted cell proliferation and alkaline phosphatase secretion in human bone marrow stem cells. Histological and immunological analyses in a scaffold-implanted mouse model have demonstrated biocompatibility, supporting osteoclastic resorption and osteoblastic mineralization by downregulating RANKL. Furthermore, the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay showed the excellent angiogenic properties of the scaffold. These results suggest that the bioceramic-reinforced SF/Alg biomimetic scaffold has significant potential for use in BTE.

One of the most critical challenges in wound care is managing infection during the healing process. Antimicrobial wound dressings are essential for minimising bacterial infections in wounds. In this study, chitosan/silk fibroin (CSSF) composite dressings containing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized by Chromolaena odorata and deferoxamine (DFO) are fabricated using a freeze-drying method for effective wound dressing applications. These nanocomposite dressings demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, potent antimicrobial effects, favourable mechanical properties, and high porosity. Additionally, their swelling behaviour, water uptake, blood clotting ability, and drug release performance are also investigated. Antimicrobial evaluations using disk diffusion and colony counting methods indicate that the nanocomposite dressings effectively inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Although limitations regarding in vivo translation remain, this study nevertheless demonstrated considerable potential for further development, with promising prospects for enhancing clot stability, infection resistance, and angiogenic effects .

Cisplatin (CDDP) as a first-line chemotherapy drug has long suffered drawbacks of severe side effects and poor pharmacokinetics. Thus, various nano-carriers of complex architectures and multi-step modifications have been developed to overcome these challenges, but a simple delivery system with integrated multi-functions is still in demand. Herein, we synthesized a new type of glyco-based triple hydrophilic block copolymers for the delivery of CDDP and thereof cancer therapy. The incorporated glucuronic acid part is complexed with CDDP with high entrapment efficiency, while providing pH-responsive release in the acidic tumor microenvironment. The galactose segment is implanted for liver-targeting effect, which can also significantly lower the side effects of CDDP. As a result, the CDDP-loaded nanoparticle PGG2/Pt showed selectively faster endocytosis rates into HepG2 cells in vitro, with the calculated IC50 value even comparable to that of free CDDP. The in vivo experiments on a HepG2-bearing mouse model, PGG2/Pt showed excellent anti-tumor activity and enhanced drug accumulation on tumor, together with much lowered nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and splenic toxicity. This work provides a new strategy for CDDP delivery with higher loading efficiency as well as biosafety.

Pulpitis is inflammation of the dental pulp, often caused by bacterial infection from untreated cavities, leading to pain. The main challenge in treatment is eliminating infection while preserving tooth vitality. This study aims to address this challenge by developing a hydrogel for convenient insertion into the root canal system, securely attaching to dentin walls. An injectable hydrogel system is developed by chemically cross-linking natural polysaccharide pectin with gelatin (GPG) through reversible Schiff base reaction. The GPG system was then used to encapsulate and release drugs, such as ciprofloxacin (CIP) for infection prevention and deferoxamine (DFO) for promoting blood vessel proliferation and reducing inflammatory reactions. The GPGs absorbed significant amounts of CIP and DFO, enabling sustained release over a nearly ten-day period. When subcutaneously implanted, the GPGs formed stable gel depots, with only 50 % of the gels degrading after 3 weeks, indicating a sustained biodegradation pattern. Additionally, the GPG system demonstrated excellent antibacterial activity against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Results from in vitro scratch healing tests and in ovo chorioallantoic membrane chick model tests showed promising biocompatibility and promotion of vascular proliferation by the GPG. This study heralds a novel frontier in endodontic therapeutics, poised to potentially enable dental pulp regeneration.