The term “noncontingent reinforcement (NCR)” has long been used in both research and clinical practice. However, several authors have recognized it as a conceptually flawed term in the scholarly literature (e.g., Poling Normand, 1999). Nonetheless, behavior analysts have continued to use this term, and there are several concerns surrounding its usage in addition to the conceptual reasons previously reported. At present, “NCR” is serving as an umbrella term for several response-independent (e.g., time-based schedules, continuous access), response-dependent (e.g., change in dependency), and other procedures with preexisting labels (e.g., mand training, pairing). With “NCR” being used to describe a wide array of distinct procedures, it can lead to confusion and imprecise communication. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide a brief history of “NCR,” describe procedures commonly labelled as “NCR,” explore some of the attendant terminological issues in relation to the mechanisms of action, and summarize arguments from the literature for keeping or removing “NCR” from our lexicon. We will then propose an umbrella term (i.e., response-independent schedules) for these common procedures and suggest a series of actions to resolve this ongoing problem in our terminology.
Photocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into solar fuels offers a sustainable approach to mitigating carbon emissions and energy crises. However, this process remains hindered by inefficient charge separation and limited CO2 adsorption/activation. Herein, we propose to tackle these challenges by constructing a ternary graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)/carbon dots (CDs)/SnS2 heterojunction via a CDs-confined self-assembly strategy. The CDs allow the uniform riveting of SnS2 nano-islands onto ultrathin g-C3N4 nanosheets and prevent the aggregation of SnS2 nanocrystals, which leads to the formation of numerous micro-scale Type-II heterojunction units. Additionally, CDs also function as charge transfer bridges to facilitate the separation of charge carriers. In gas-solid phase reactions without sacrificial agents, the optimized heterojunction can convert CO2 to CO with a production rate of 28.32 }mol g-1 h-1 and a selectivity of 89 %, which is 10.85-fold higher than that of pristine g-C3N4. In situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), and in situ Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) collectively reveal enhanced interfacial charge transport and spatial separation. In situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) coupled with density functional theory (DFT) simulations confirms reduced energy barriers for CO2 activation for the facile formation of critical intermediates (*COOH, *CO). This work demonstrates the potential of confinement engineering and interfacial electronic modulation for efficient solar-driven CO2 conversion. (c) 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & Technology.
We develop novel variational methods for solving scaled equations that do not have the mountain pass geometry, classical linking geometry based on linear subspaces, or Z2 symmetry, and therefore cannot be solved using classical variational arguments. Our contributions here include new critical group estimates for scaled functionals, nonlinear saddle point and linking geometries based on scaling, a notion of local linking based on scaling, and scaling-based multiplicity results for symmetric functionals. We develop these methods in an abstract setting involving scaled operators and scaled eigenvalue problems. Applications to subcritical and critical Schr & ouml;dinger-Poisson-Slater equations are given. (c) 2026 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Water and land surfaces on a planet interact in particular ways with gases in the atmosphere and with radiation from the star. These interactions define the environments that prevail on the planet, some of which may be more amenable to prebiotic chemistry, some to the evolution of more complex life. This review article covers (i) the physical conditions that determine the ratio of land to sea on a rocky planet, (ii) how this ratio would affect climatic and biologic processes, and (iii) whether future astronomical observations might constrain this ratio on exoplanets. Water can be delivered in multiple ways to a growing rocky planet — and although we may not agree on the contribution of different mechanism(s) to Earth’s bulk water, hydrated building blocks and nebular ingassing could at least in principle supply several oceans’ worth. The water that planets can sequester over eons in their solid deep mantles is limited by the water concentration at water saturation of nominally anhydrous mantle minerals, being in sum likely less than 2000 ppm of the planet mass. Water is cycled between mantle and surface through outgassing and ingassing mechanisms that, while tightly linked to tectonics, do not necessarily require plate tectonics in every case. The actual water/land ratio at a given time then emerges from the balance between the volume of surface water on the one hand, and on the other hand, the shape of the planet (its ocean basin volume) that is carved out by dynamic topography, the petrologic evolution of continents, impact cratering, and other surface-sculpting processes. By leveraging the contrast in reflectance properties of water and land surfaces, spatially resolved 2D maps of Earth-as-an-exoplanet have been retrieved from models using real Earth observations, demonstrating that water/land ratios of rocky exoplanets may be determined from data delivered by large-aperture, high-contrast imaging telescopes in the future.
This study evaluates the effects of co-hydrothermal carbonization (Co-HTC) of poultry (PM), dairy (DM), and swine manure (SM) at 180, 220, and 260 °C on hydrochar yield, nutrient recovery, phytotoxicity, and heavy metal retention. Co-HTC of PM with DM (PMDM) and PM with SM (PMSM) were assessed for synergistic effects by comparing observed values to predicted additive outcomes based on individual HTC data. Hydrochar yield decreased with increasing temperature across all treatments; however, PMSM and PMDM exhibited synergistic enhancement in yield at 180 °C (synergistic coefficient: 1.13-1.23). Elemental analysis indicated that nitrogen retention was maximized in PMDM hydrochars (4.71 ± 0.61% N at 180 °C), while PMSM hydrochars exhibited superior retention of phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium. Most potassium leached into the co-HTC process liquid. Heavy metals (Zn, Cu, and Ni) were effectively immobilized, with Co-HTC resulting in lower concentrations of Mo, Pb, and Cr compared to individual HTC. Seed germination index (GI), used to assess phytotoxicity, revealed temperature- and feedstock dependent trends, with PMSM hydrochar produced at 180 °C achieving the highest GI (140.91 ± 7.05%), indicating synergistic reduction in phytotoxicity. These findings demonstrate that Co-HTC can optimize recovery of nutrients into hydrochar and enhance the agronomic and environmental quality of hydrochars through tailored feedstock interactions and process tuning.
