The genetic basis of type 1 red-flesh color development in apple (Malus domestica) depends upon a particular allele of the MdMYB10 gene. Interestingly, type 1 red-flesh apples are fully red after fruit set, but anthocyanin pigmentation in apple fruit cortex may decrease during fruit growth and maturation, leading to variable red patterning and intensities in the mature cortical flesh. We developed a histogram-based color analysis method to quantitatively estimate pigmentation patterns. This methodology was applied to investigate the phenotypic diversity in four hybrid F1 families segregating for red-flesh color. Pigmentation patterns were found to be heritable allowing the identification of a new locus by QTL analysis. To further investigate the mechanisms involved in the spatial deposition of anthocyanin, metabolome, transcriptome and methylome comparisons between white and red flesh areas within the red-flesh genotype cv. ‘R201’ exhibiting flesh pigmentation patterns, was performed. Wide-targeted analysis showed that white-flesh areas accumulate more dihydrochalcones and hydroxycinnamic acids than red-flesh areas while red-flesh areas accumulate more flavonoids. Anthocyanin biosynthesis genes and anthocyanin positive regulators (MBW complex) were up-regulated in red-flesh areas, while a reduction in anthocyanin storage, transport and stability (increase of pH, down-regulation of MdGSTU22) and an increase in phenolic catabolism were concomitant with color fading process in white-flesh areas. Expression of MdGSTU22 was linked to a differentially methylated region (DMR) suggesting a potential environmental effect on the epigenetic control of gene expression involved in color fading. Altogether, these results provide the first characterization and functional identification of color fading in apple fruit flesh.
BACKGROUND:The genetic basis of colour development in red-flesh apples (Malus domestica Borkh) has been widely characterised; however, current models do not explain the observed variations in red pigmentation intensity and distribution. Available methods to evaluate the red-flesh trait rely on the estimation of an average overall colour using a discrete class notation index. However, colour variations among red-flesh cultivars are continuous while development of red colour is non-homogeneous and genotype-dependent. A robust estimation of red-flesh colour intensity and distribution is essential to fully capture the diversity among genotypes and provide a basis to enable identification of loci influencing the red-flesh trait.RESULTS:In this study, we developed a multivariable approach to evaluate the red-flesh trait in apple. This method was implemented to study the phenotypic diversity in a segregating hybrid F1 family (91 genotypes). We developed a Python pipeline based on image and colour analysis to quantitatively dissect the red-flesh pigmentation from RGB (Red Green Blue) images and compared the efficiency of RGB and CIEL*a*b* colour spaces in discriminating genotypes previously classified with a visual notation. Chemical destructive methods, including targeted-metabolite analysis using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (UPLC-UV), were performed to quantify major phenolic compounds in fruits' flesh, as well as pH and water contents. Multivariate analyses were performed to study covariations of biochemical factors in relation to colour expression in CIEL*a*b* colour space. Our results indicate that anthocyanin, flavonol and flavanol concentrations, as well as pH, are closely related to flesh pigmentation in apple.CONCLUSTION:Extraction of colour descriptors combined to chemical analyses helped in discriminating genotypes in relation to their flesh colour. These results suggest that the red-flesh trait in apple is a complex trait associated with several biochemical factors.
Contributing to the literature on so-called irrelevant events, this article aims to investigate the existence of a relation between football results and voters’ behaviour. There are indeed reasons to believe that football-related acrimony could influence electoral behaviour. More precisely, does the rank of a rival team and the distance between it and local teams influence the behaviour of the electorate? Spain seems to be the perfect case for study of this relationship, since the presence of football teams representing both local ( comunidad ) and central authorities (the Spanish Crown) allows us to study the effect of an important cleavage: the centre-periphery. This means that sport disputes may be reflected in voting preferences for ethno-regionalist parties. Following this reasoning, the better Real Madrid (the team representing the Crown) performs, and the closer the local team is to it (and thus actually competing), the stronger local supporters’ sense of acrimony and desire for payback will be. By means of a quantitative approach, using data on election results and Spanish Liga rankings, our analysis confirms the existence of a negative correlation between Real Madrid’s ranking and distance from local teams, and the share of votes in ethno-regionalist parties.
In 2017, two multi-location apple rootstock trials were established at 16 sites in 12 European countries. The evaluations are performed by members of the EUFRIN (European Fruit Research Institute Network) Apple & Pear Variety & Rootstock Testing Working Group. Two separate trials were arranged, grouping rootstocks into dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks according to the expected vigour; 'Galaval' was used as scion cultivar. The trial of dwarf rootstocks includes 'G.11' and 'G.41' (US), 'EM_02', 'EM_03', 'EM_04', 'EM_05' and 'EM_06' (UK), '62-396-B10 (R)' (Russia), 'P 67' (Poland), 'PFR4' and 'PFR5' (New Zealand) and 'Cepiland-Pajam (R) 2' as control. The trial of semi-dwarf rootstocks includes 'G.202' and 'G.935' (US), 'PFR1' and 'PFR3' (New Zealand), 'EM_01' (UK) and 'G.11' as a control for both trials. Part of the rootstocks (from dwarf and semidwarf rootstock trials) was planted in replanting conditions to test their tolerance to apple replant disease. All test trees came from the same nursery, and a common standardised evaluation protocol was used. Based on preliminary results averaged across sites, dwarf rootstocks can be ranked in terms of vigour in the following order: 'EM_04' < 'EM_03', 'EM_05' < '62-396-B10 (R)', 'P 67', 'EM_02', 'G.11' < 'G.41', 'Cepiland-Pajam (R) 2' < 'EM_06', 'PFR4' < 'PFR5'. On average, semi-dwarf rootstocks can be ranked in terms of vigour in the following order: 'G11' < 'G.935', 'G.202' < 'PFR3', 'EM_01' < 'PFR1'. The highest cumulative yield in the young orchard was registered for trees on 'PFR5', 'PFR4', 'G.11', 'G.41', 'Cepiland-Pajam (R) 2' and 'EM_02', while the lowest production was found for trees on 'EM_04'. In the group of semi-dwarf rootstocks, the highest yield was on 'PFR3', 'G.935' and 'PFR1'. Rootstocks also had a significant effect on fruit weight and fruit quality parameters. Results from the young orchards revealed interactions between sites and rootstock, potentially leading to site-specific rootstock choice based on the combination of rootstock, soil conditions and climate.
Pectinases are widely used alone or with other enzymes in the maceration and liquefaction of fruit and vegetables as processing aids for the production of nectars, clarified juices, and grape musts. Many of these applications are preferably performed at low temperatures, requiring the search for cold-active pectinases. Recently, the exploration for new extremophilic pectinases has focused on different extreme biomes, such as cold environments. Cold-adapted yeasts produce active pectinases at mild and low temperatures, which is very advantageous for the food industry. Strains from genera Cystofilobasidium, Rhodotorula, Mrakia, and Tausonia isolated from permanent cold habitats have the ability to produce cold-active pectinases. Also, strains from other specific environments, such as vineyards and refrigerated fruits, produce these enzymes. Studies show that cold-active pectinases present advantages in processes like fruit juice clarification and during wine fermentation. Cold-adapted yeast bioprospecting for cold-active pectinases is a new tool with enormous potential in beverage applications.
