The National University of San Marcos (Spanish: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, UNMSM) is a public research university located in Lima, the capital of Peru. It is considered the most important, recognized and representative educational institution at the national level. At the continental level, it is the first officially established (privilege by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) and the oldest continuously operating university in the Americas, which is why it appears in official documents and publications as "University of Peru, Dean University of the Americas". It had its beginnings in the general studies that were offered in the cloisters of the convent of the Rosario of the order of Santo Domingo —current Basilica and Convent of Santo Domingo— around 1548. Its official foundation was conceived by Fray Thomas de San Martín and the May 12, 1551 with the decree of Emperor Carlos I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1571 it acquired the degree of pontifical granted by Pope Pius V with which it ended up being named as "Royal and Pontifical University of the City of the Kings of Lima". Being recognized by the Spanish Crown as the first university in America officially founded by Real cédula, it is also referred to as "University of Lima" throughout the Viceroyalty. Throughout its history, the The university had a total of four colleges under tutelage: the Colegio Real y Mayor de San Martín and the Colegio Real y Mayor de San Felipe y San Marcos, the Real Colegio de San Carlos —focused on law and letters, derived from the merger of the two previous ones—and the Royal College of San Fernando—focused on medicine and surgery—. In the times of emancipation, it acquired a main role in the formation of several of the leaders managing the independence of Peru. After the proclamation of independence and during the republic, it maintains both colloquially and formally —in various treaties and documents historical—its name as "Universidad de Lima" until 1946, the year in which its current name and denomination as National and Mayor University were made official.The University of San Marcos is considered the most important and representative Peruvian institution of higher education for its "tradition, prestige, quality and selectivity", being also recognized as the institution with the highest scientific production in Peru. It has positioned itself in the 1st place at the national level in certain editions of various university rankings, such as in the first University Ranking of Peru prepared by the National Assembly of Rectors of Peru under the auspices of UNESCO in 2006, in the University Rankings by Academic Performance of the URAP Center, in various editions of the QS World University Rankings by Quacquarelli Simonds, in the Web Rankings of Universities prepared by CSIC and known as Webometrics, in the University Web Rankings by 4ICU, and in the SIR World Reports by SCImago Research Center; being together with the UPCH and PUCP, one of the only three Peruvian universities that have appeared in such a position, as well as the only public one to do so. In addition, it has a ten-year institutional license granted by the National Superintendence of Higher University Education (SUNEDU) and an international institutional accreditation that certifies its academic and administrative quality. In terms of research, according to information from the Scopus database, the University of San Marcos is to date the 1st Peruvian institution in the production of scientific articles, both annually and historically. Various influential Peruvians and Latin Americans have come out of its classrooms, all recognizing and valuing the high level of teaching and the active and important intellectual participation that the university and its students had throughout the history of Peru. The University of San Marcos has been referred to many times as a reflection of Peru for expressing the advances and limitations that the country eventually has, in addition to the valued diversity, preparation and activism of its students. Twenty-one Presidents of the Republic of Peru, five Peruvian candidates for Nobel Prizes of Physics, Literature and Peace —of the total of six Peruvians nominated between 1901 and 1964, the only period currently published by the Norwegian Committee— and a Nobel Prize winner —Mario Vargas Llosa, until now the only Peruvian with such recognition — they have been graduates, researchers and/or professors of this university.In its 471 years of operation, the University of San Marcos has passed through several locations, of which it maintains and stands out: the "Casona de San Marcos", a historic location of the university with more than 400 years of history —part of the area and of the list of buildings in the Historic Center of Lima that were recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988 —and that are currently the venue for the main cultural activities and the granting of high degrees by the university; the current premises of the "San Fernando" Faculty of Medicine, inaugurated in 1901 for the first medical school in the country; and the so-called “University City”, which has been its main headquarters since 1960, where most of the faculties, the central library, the university stadium and the rectory are located, and most of the academic and research activities are carried out. All these premises are located in the Cercado de Lima. The University of San Marcos currently has 66 professional schools, grouped into 20 faculties, and these in turn in 5 academic areas, being the Peruvian university that covers the largest number of university subjects. All faculties offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. It also has various centers, institutions and dependencies, such as its cultural centers, museums, libraries, clinics and university clinics, editorial fund, among others. In addition, through its "Domingo Angulo" historical archive, the university preserves documents and writings of great historical relevance dating from the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. In 2019, the “Colonial Fund and Foundational Documents of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos: 1551-1852” was incorporated into the UNESCO Memory of the World Register, in recognition of its significance for the global collective memory.
CONTEXT Goat farming in Peru is economically marginal yet essential for rural livelihoods and food security. Creole goats are managed extensively on native rangelands or crop residues, but their greenhouse gas emissions remain poorly quantified. OBJECTIVE To assess the carbon footprint (CFP) of Creole goat milk production under two contrasting extensive systems in Lima (crop-residue based) and Ancash (shrubland-based), Peru. METHODS A cradle-to-farm-gate life cycle assessment was conducted on six farms per system during winter and summer. Emissions of CH₄, N₂O and CO₂ were estimated using IPCC methodologies and expressed per kilogram of fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM). CFP were analyzed using univariate and mixed-effects models. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS System differences in farm characteristics were more pronounced during summer, when Ancash system, compared to Lima system, showed higher dietary fiber concentrations (42.65% vs 33.10%; p < 0.001) and produced milk with greater total solids content (15.38% vs 13.70%; p < 0.05). However, CFP did not differ significantly between systems, ranging from 0.681 to 1.672 kg CO₂-eq kg−1 FPCM, with enteric fermentation accounting for 74–79% of total emissions. Significant system × season interactions for fuel and electricity emissions revealed contrasting seasonal resource-use responses between systems. These findings indicate that seasonal dynamics are a major driver of emission variability, while overall CFP remained comparable between systems. SIGNIFICANCE This study provides the first CFP assessment of Creole goat milk production in Peru and highlights the importance of considering ecosystem and seasonal variability when assessing emissions from marginal goat systems.
This study investigates the non-stationary evolution of Atlantic multidecadal variability and its influence on hydroclimate in Northeastern Brazil (NEB) over the last millennium. By integrating high-resolution paleoclimate proxies (speleothems and marine sediments) with isotope-enabled climate simulations from the GISS-E2-R model, we move beyond confirming the well-established AMV-ITCZ link and instead document how the tropical Atlantic-South American climate system responded to a superposition of drivers across distinct climatic intervals. During the Medieval Climate Anomaly (950-1300 CE), variability was characterized by a persistent 64-year cycle associated with a positive phase of Atlantic Multidecadal Variability (AMV) and a northward displacement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), intensifying aridity over NEB. The transition period (1301-1499 CE) was characterized by a more irregular 8-year cycle, likely reflecting enhanced climatic instability driven by interactions among ENSO dynamics, volcanic forcing, and internal Atlantic variability. During the Little Ice Age (1500-1849 CE), a 32-year cycle emerged, associated with a negative AMV phase, a southward ITCZ shift, and wetter conditions over NEB. Our findings demonstrate that NEB hydroclimate reflects a non-stationary superposition of internal variability (AMV, ENSO) and external forcings (volcanism, solar variability), rather than a single dominant driver. This multi-scale framework provides a long-term perspective for understanding present-day climate variability and improving future drought risk projections in the region. The This graphical summary illustrates how Atlantic Multidecadal Variability (AMV), Pacific forcing, and external drivers influenced the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and rainfall patterns in Northeastern Brazil (NEB) over the last millennium. During the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA, 950–1300 CE), a positive AMV phase contributed to a northward ITCZ shift and drier conditions. The transition period ( 1300–1500 CE) was marked by an 8-year mode reflecting interactions among ENSO, volcanic forcing, and Atlantic variability. During the Little Ice Age (LIA, 1500–1849 CE), a negative AMV phase favored a southward ITCZ migration and wetter conditions. These fluctuations reflect a superposition of internal variability and external forcings, rather than a single dominant driver, providing a long-term perspective for improving future climate adaptation in NEB. Hydroclimatic variability in NEB emerges from a multiscale interaction between persistent Atlantic variability and episodic Pacific and volcanic forcing. A persistent ∼64-year AMV mode contributed to aridity during the MCA. ENSO and volcanic forcing likely contributed to an ∼8-year mode during the MCA-LIA transition. A ∼32-year mode, linked to a cooler Atlantic and southward ITCZ, characterized the LIA. NEB hydroclimate reflects multiscale interactions between AMV, ENSO, and external forcings.
Despite expansion of publicly funded HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in Peru, uptake remains limited. We conducted a cross-sectional online survey (June–August 2023) among 463 men who have sex with men eligible for PrEP to examine progression across the PrEP cascade and identify implementation-relevant determinants of PrEP seeking and initiation. Although 78.6
Mountain plants often show preferences for certain topographic characteristics, both for warming and cooling effects, which can modify the response of plants to warming temperatures. We located 12,717 endangered Puya raimondii giant rosettes from satellite imagery and determined their topographic preferences (elevation, slope, aspect) in a study area in the south of Peru. We identified present-day habitat patches matching the species’ preferences in the study area, and projected ahead, in the same region, to 2100 using temperature change scenarios of + 1–5 °C. We adjusted habitat availability in line with the species’ poor dispersal ability. Puya raimondii rosettes in the study area preferred elevations of 3900–4200 m, slopes of 20–50°, and aspects of WNW through to ENE. Approximately 4
Abstract Introduction The place of death is recognized as a proxy for the quality and equity of end-of-life care. Understanding where people die provides insights into health system performance, social inequalities, and the availability of palliative services. In Peru, evidence on this topic remains scarce, and national patterns and determinants have not been previously characterized. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional analytical study including all deaths registered in SINADEF from January 2017 to April 2024. Deaths were categorized as occurring at home, in a healthcare facility, or elsewhere. Sociodemographic, geographic, and contextual variables were analyzed, and the need for palliative care was estimated using the methodology of The Lancet Commission on Global Access to Palliative Care and Pain Relief. Associations were assessed using Poisson regression models with robust variance to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results A total of 1,093,463 deaths were analyzed. Overall, 53.1% occurred in healthcare facilities, 41.3% at home, and 5.6% elsewhere. The proportion of home deaths increased over the study period (p < 0.001). Older age, lack of health insurance, lower educational level, lower socioeconomic status, Indigenous ethnicity, and residence outside Metropolitan Lima were associated with higher prevalence of home death. In contrast, individuals with estimated palliative care needs were less likely to die at home (aPR = 0.66; 95% CI: 0.65 to 0.66). Marked regional heterogeneity was observed, with home deaths ranging from 23.5% in Madre de Dios to 62.3% in Puno. Conclusions More than four in ten deaths in Peru occur at home, with increasing trends over time and wide regional and social disparities. The findings suggest that dying at home often reflects structural inequities and limited access to institutional or palliative care rather than preference. Strengthening community- and home-based palliative services is crucial to ensure that end-of-life care aligns with patients’ needs and values.
