This paper analyzes the complex air quality changes observed after three years of the devastating Russian–Ukrainian war. Using remote sensing and near-surface observations for 2019–2024, we provide the first multi-temporal assessment of air pollutant changes, ranging from single events to interannual variability, against the background of the war’s cumulative regional effects. The analysis reveals contrasting short- and long-term impacts. Short-term episodes in urban areas linked to missile and drone attacks increased near-surface pollutant concentrations by 100–400
Climate variability poses significant risks to Ethiopia's rainfall-dependent smallholder farming systems. Since meteorological patterns can vary widely across agro-ecological zones, understanding differences in vulnerability across these zones is essential for targeted adaptation. However, many existing vulnerability studies rely on basin-, zonal-, or inter-district analyses and apply composite indices without robustness testing, which can obscure within-district heterogeneity and limit policy relevance at the scale where adaptation decisions are implemented. This study assesses smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate variability across three agro-ecological zones (midland, highland, and cold highland) in Legambo District, north-central Ethiopia. It examines spatial differences in vulnerability levels, identifies key biophysical and socio-economic drivers, and generates evidence to inform locally differentiated adaptation and development interventions. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining household survey data from 347 randomly selected households with focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and long-term climate data. Forty-eight indicators were grouped into twelve major components and analyses using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the LVI-IPCC framework, which conceptualise vulnerability in terms of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The robustness of the composite indices was assessed using a PCA-based sensitivity analysis, and household-level vulnerability distributions were examined to capture within-zone heterogeneity. The results reveal modest but consistent differences in vulnerability across agro-ecological zones. The cold highland zone was the most vulnerable (LVI = 0.370), driven by high exposure to climatic hazards, limited infrastructure, weak social networks, low innovation uptake, and constrained adaptive capacity. The highland zone exhibited moderate vulnerability, largely associated with inadequate water and health services and limited soil and water conservation practices. In contrast, the midland zone was the least vulnerable (LVI = 0.285), benefiting from greater livelihood diversification, better access to assets, and stronger adaptive capacity. The LVI-IPCC analysis confirmed these patterns, indicating higher exposure and sensitivity in the cold highlands and comparatively stronger adaptive capacity in the midlands. These findings indicate the interest of differentiated policy responses to strengthen resilience among smallholder farmers. In particular, the results indicate that improved rural roads, water supply, and health services, together with agro-ecological-zone-specific extension support and improved access to climate-resilient inputs, should strengthen adaptation planning and rural development program.
Monitoring drought helps to reduce their economic and environmental impacts by enabling early warnings and better resource management planning. In Europe, there are several operational monitoring systems operating at national and regional scales. However, such monitoring systems are rarely validated, which complicates the decision-making process. Therefore, we evaluated six national drought monitoring products in Central Europe using a novel extreme event impact database compiled from national newspaper reports over the period 2000–2023. The drought monitoring indices used in the countries include the standardized precipitation index (SPI), standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), and standardized relative soil moisture with different aggregation periods. The area under receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) is used to assess the ability of the drought indices to detect impact occurrence. Spearman correlation coefficients (r) between the severity of the drought index and the number of reported impacts are used to assess their ability to capture impact severity. The highest AUC values were obtained for the drought monitoring products of Czechia, Croatia, and Slovenia ( AUC>0.8 ) while the lowest values were obtained for the monitoring product of Austria ( AUC<0.7 ). Impact severity was best captured in Poland (for some indices r>0.6 ), and worst in Slovakia, Slovenia, and Austria ( r<0.4 ). With an increasing aggregation period, the correlation generally decreases, while the AUC values show a non-linear pattern, peaking at an intermediate integration time of three to 6 months. The results of this study help to understand the strengths and weaknesses of drought monitoring products in each country and support the development of a common drought monitoring framework for Central Europe.
Loranthus europaeus, is a dioecious hemiparasitic plant widely distributed across southern and central Europe. It has a strong preference for oak species, but it can also parasitize other broadleaf species such as Castanea sativa, Carpinus betulus, Betula pendula, and Acer spp., showing a broader host range in favorable conditions. Despite its increasing occurrence and ecological significance, this species has received limited attention in applied forestry research. Although climate change and forest fragmentation have helped L. europaeus spread, its ecological impact has both negative effects on tree health and potential benefits for biodiversity. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the taxonomy, distribution, host specificity, reproductive ecology, and physiological effects of L. europaeus on host trees in European broadleaf forests. The hemiparasite affects water relations and carbon assimilation in host trees, increases susceptibility to secondary pests and pathogens, and contributes to crown dieback and premature tree mortality. Factors like stand age, canopy openness, and site dryness also influence infestation severity. The review discusses how climate change may promote the spread of L. europaeus in Europe, and presents practical strategies to control its impact, including silvicultural measures, mechanical removal, and selected chemical treatments. The management implications are considered in the context of ecosystem resilience, biodiversity conservation, and forest adaptation to climate change. Recognizing that L. europaeus can both negatively impact forest productivity and contribute to ecological complexity is important for making informed decisions in forest management.
This study investigates the variability of air quality in Ukraine during the first two years of the military conflict (1 January 2022-31 December 2023), with a particular focus on fire-related emissions as a key contributor to air pollution. To analyze fire activity, assess the extent of burned areas, and classify affected land cover types, we utilized data from the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS), specifically the MODIS/SENTINEL-2 Burnt Areas product. To address the impact of these fires on atmospheric pollution levels, we analyzed the distribution of tropospheric NO2, CO, and the Absorbing Aerosol Index (AAI) using data from the TROPOMI satellite instrument. In addition, we incorporated ground-based observations from the Ukrainian National Air Quality Network (NAQN), a system of about 100 monitoring stations in 39 cities across Ukraine. We quantified the impact of increased fire activity on air pollution by comparing biomass burning emissions derived from fire radiative power with anthropogenic emissions before and during the conflict. To facilitate spatial and temporal analysis, we distinguish eight regions within the territory of Ukraine, which makes it possible to map the extent and magnitude of fire-related emissions and track their evolution in response to the changes in the front-line location. Hostilities made fire emissions a significant contributor to air pollution during 2022 and 2023. Fire activity was predominantly concentrated within a 30-km zone along the front-line, which accounted for 66% of the total burned area in 2022 and nearly 80% in 2023. While weather conditions influenced fire activity, the war was the dominant factor shaping the severity of the 2022 and 2023 fire seasons. In 2022, military operations and the front-line extended across north, north-east, east and south-east parts of Ukraine, whereas in 2023, they were confined to east and south-east. Fires were most severe in the north and east. Analysis of satellite-derived data indicated that peak fire activity coincided with increases in NO2, CO, and AAI that exceeded the historical daily maxima for 2018-2021. While ground-based observations showed varying air quality tendencies (decreases in 16 cities, increases in 9 cities), industrial proximity made isolating changes unrelated to industry or its destruction difficult. Only in Sloviansk (Donetsk region, 20-30 km from the front-line) were reliable increases in observed NO2, CO, and dust, directly linked to military actions. Analysis of Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) and Global Fire Assimilation System (GFAS) inventories revealed that during severe fire seasons (2020, 2022, and 2023), NOx fire-related emissions were comparable to industrial levels, whereas CO emissions exhibited increases of up to 11-fold. In contrast, during the less intense 2021 fire season, NOx emissions were 2.5 times lower than industrial emissions, while CO concentrations were similar to or marginally greater than those from industrial sources. These findings indicate that fire-related pollution in Ukraine, including war-induced, was a significant contributor to overall pollution levels, comparable to industrial sources before hostilities.
