Amid the global push for sustainable construction, bamboo has been widely studied as a rapidly renewable, high-performance building material. This paper reviews the published literature on bamboo’s journey from plant to structural component. The review first examines the fundamental botanical characteristics of bamboo, explaining the relationship between its hierarchical structure—from molecular to cellular levels—and its mechanical properties. It then transitions to an analysis of sustainable forestry, harvesting practices, the structural uses of round bamboo, and the manufacturing processes for engineered bamboo products, such as glued laminated bamboo and bamboo scrimber. Critical performance challenges are addressed by evaluating modern treatment methods that enhance durability, dimensional stability, and fire resistance. Structural applications are explored in detail, covering traditional building typologies, innovative connection systems, and the emerging potential for bamboo in mid- and high-rise as well as long-span structures. The life cycle perspective is completed by examining end-of-life scenarios, including reuse, recycling, and energy recovery. Ultimately, the review situates bamboo within the global context by examining resource distribution, trade, and the policy frameworks required to promote its widespread adoption. By consolidating research across multiple disciplines, this paper highlights the significant potential of bamboo to contribute to a low-carbon built environment. It concludes that a holistic, science-based approach is essential for overcoming remaining challenges and fully integrating this versatile material into modern construction practices.
Using a laboratory experiment, we study the incentives of individuals to contribute to a public good that is provided if and only if the share of contributors reaches a certain threshold. We jointly vary the size of the group, the cost of contributing, the required threshold, and the framing of contributions (giving to a common pool versus not taking from it). We find that higher thresholds increase individuals' willingness to contribute. In small groups, this effect is strong enough that raising the threshold increases the likelihood that the public good is provided, whereas in larger groups the effect disappears. By contrast, we find no consistent effect of framing on either contribution behaviour or the probability of success.
The effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity are widely debated. Some studies report positive effects, whereas others link habitat fragmentation to biodiversity loss. “Fragmentation per se” refers to habitat fragmentation independently of habitat loss, or when its effect is controlled, and mainly relates to how habitat patches are spatially distributed (i.e. habitat configuration) and how this organization influences biodiversity. Here we evaluated the habitat amount hypothesis, which postulates that habitat cover is the main factor determining species diversity in fragmented landscapes. We analyzed the effects of landscape structure of a tropical dry forest in the Colombian Caribbean region on the taxonomic and (SES) functional richness of medium- to large-bodied mammals. We assessed 256 landscapes along a gradient of forest cover. We calculated landscape composition (forest cover) and configuration metrics (number of patches and edge density) in multiple nested scales. For each landscape, we estimated species richness, forest-dependent species richness, non-forest-dependent species richness, and the standardized effect size of functional richness. We evaluated the effects of landscape structure using AICc-based model comparison and model averaging. We found that species richness was positively affected by edge density, negatively affected by the number of patches, and moderately positively affected by forest cover. We also found that forest-dependent species richness was positively related to forest cover, whereas non-forest-dependent species richness showed a positive effect of edge density. We also detected a moderate negative effect of the number of patches on the standardized effect size of functional richness. These results indicate that the habitat amount hypothesis is not fully supported and suggest that conservation strategies should prioritize preserving and increasing the total amount of habitat, while also considering landscape configuration in tropical dry forest of the Colombian Caribbean.
Protected areas (PAs) are primary biodiversity conservation instruments under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Despite a substantial body of research assessing their causal impact, a comprehensive global synthesis remains lacking. This study examines trends in PA effectiveness on biodiversity loss using impact evaluation studies published between 2000 and 2023. From 129 identified studies, matching emerged as the predominant method, with deforestation and forest cover as the most frequently assessed outcomes. Notably, none of the reviewed studies incorporated CBD-approved biodiversity indicators, such as the Red List Index, and only one applied the Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) established by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. These findings underscore the need for future research to integrate standardized biodiversity metrics as outcome variables. Methodological advancements in impact evaluation are equally essential to strengthen conservation policy assessments and support evidence-based decision-making within international biodiversity agreements.
Traditional evolutionary game theory (EGT) typically assumes fixed, well-mixed populations, neglecting the fact that agents in many real-world systems can strategically form or eliminate connections based on individual incentives. This article introduces a novel framework that integrates EGT with strategic network formation to model the co-evolution of strategies and intercommunity links. We consider populations in which agents interact primarily within their own communities but may establish external connections when such interactions yield higher payoffs. To formalize this, we propose a strategic connections model (SCM) based on the concept of pairwise stability that determines which subsets of agents from different communities form links, and how these links influence evolutionary dynamics. The SCM operates as a two-stage optimization process that accounts for mutual incentives and payoff improvements. Applying our framework to classical evolutionary games, we show that intercommunity connections reshape population-level outcomes. In the prisoner’s dilemma, cooperation—typically unstable in well-mixed settings—can emerge and persist under a simple benefit-to-cost condition. In the rock-paper-scissors ( $RPS$ ) game, intercommunity links can alter or suppress the characteristic cycles observed, for instance, under replicator dynamics, affecting the long-term coexistence of strategies. In congestion games, our framework improves infrastructure usage and resource allocation, outperforming intuitive but nonstrategic connection choices. These results highlight the critical role of strategic intercommunity links in shaping collective behavior, offering new insights into the interplay between intercommunity and intracommunity dynamics in biological, social, and engineered systems, where such links can represent interactions among species, individuals, and/or machines within cybernetic environments.
