Adequate nutrition is an essential requirement for health, growth, prevention of nutritional diseases and normal physiological functions throughout life. Although there has been significant progress in agriculture, food systems, nutrition science, food insecurity and dietary insufficiency continue to be a significant public health challenge globally. This might be due to factors including limited dietary diversity, socioeconomic inequalities, infectious diseases, climate change and poor governance. This chapter thoroughly explains the concept of nutritional adequacy, its definition, evolution over time and the components of an adequate diet. It also explains the recommended dietary allowances, dietary diversity, nutrient density, bioavailability and commonly used approaches for nutritional assessment. It also reviews the current state of nutritional status worldwide and sheds light on key factors that are associated with nutritional inadequacy in various populations. Furthermore, it demonstrates the growing role of novel food products as an intervention to achieve nutritional adequacy by producing nutrient-rich, safe and sustainable food. Special attention is given to new functional ingredients such as algae, edible insects, yeast, fungi, legumes and wild plants. It also focused on novel food processing technologies such as food fortification, alternative protein innovation, precision fermentation and multidimensional food printing. Conclusively, the scientifically formulated novel food products are a promising approach to improve the nutritional quality of the diet, overcome nutrient deficiencies and provide sustainable nutrition goals to improve health of human population.
Meat-based foods continue to play an important role in human diets, yet their future relevance will depend increasingly on how effectively eating quality, nutritional value, resource efficiency, and sustainability can be improved through processing innovation. This chapter examines how processing strategies can be deliberately designed to enhance the sensory and nutritional performance of meat-based foods across whole-muscle, minced, restructured, and hybrid systems. It first considers advances in post-mortem ageing, showing how conventional wet- and dry-ageing can be further refined through stepwise and tailored ageing approaches to better control tenderness, flavour development, yield, and consistency across muscles, species, and consumer segments. The chapter then explores the integration of freezing/thawing with ageing as a practical route to improving the quality of frozen meat by managing structural and biochemical changes more effectively. In minced and restructured systems, attention is given to meat-to-meat fortification, nutrient enrichment with meat co-products, and hybrid meat production as strategies to increase nutritional density, valorise underutilised resources, and broaden product offering. The chapter further discusses hybrid meat as an emerging processing concept and highlights the HYBRID meat framework as a systems-based approach for guiding ingredient selection, matrix compatibility, process design, and consumer-oriented product development. Innovative processing technologies, culinary developments and enabling tools are also considered as means to translate processing gains into consumer value. Collectively, these perspectives show how a more integrated, processing-led strategy can help deliver meat-based foods that are sensory optimised, nutritionally robust, economically viable, and responsive to evolving consumer preferences and sustainability expectations.
During food processing and storage, lipids and proteins are prone to oxidative degradation. This deterioration is caused by reactions with reactive oxygen species or with secondary compounds formed during oxidation. The mechanisms of lipid and protein oxidation share several similarities, and both processes can negatively influence the functional, nutritional, and sensory quality of food products. Lipid oxidation in foods has been recognized as a major quality issue. Still, protein oxidation in food systems has been largely ignored because it has been considered a secondary reaction to lipid oxidation. Both lipid and protein oxidation can influence food quality, including the production of off-odor and off-flavor, color and texture changes, and decreased protein functionality and consumer acceptance, and are involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases such as atherosclerosis, inflammation, cellular dysfunction, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, and other health conditions in humans and animals. The consumption of oxidized lipids and protein products has raised increasing concern due to their potential roles in the development of various chronic diseases in humans. Lipid and protein oxidation produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a variety of secondary oxidation products, such as aldehydes, ketones, and epoxides, which can interact with biological molecules and disrupt normal physiological functions. However, lipid oxidation products tend to promote protein oxidation, and their impact is more detrimental than that of protein oxidation. Consuming foods with oxidized lipids and proteins can increase oxidative stress in the body. Because the functions of proteins in biological systems are highly specific, oxidative modifications can compromise protein function and lead to pathological consequences. The oxidation processes, products, and mechanisms of lipids are well elucidated. However, details on protein oxidation, including peptide and amino acid oxidation, side chain degradation/cleavage and their end products, and the structural (primary, secondary, and tertiary) modifications of proteins on functionality, nutritional, digestibility, product quality changes, and the biological and health effects of consuming protein oxidation products need further study.
Pectins are a family of plant polysaccharides with complex structures whose significance extends beyond their established function as food texture modifiers. These compounds are directly relevant to human health, and their impact is influenced by structural diversity. The chemical composition of pectins varies according to botanical origin and is shaped by extraction and modification processes. Such structural differences determine both technological functionality and a range of bioactive properties, establishing pectins as potent dietary fibers with systemic health effects. Modified pectins exhibit immunomodulatory and anticancer activities through mechanisms including receptor interactions and modulation of key signaling pathways. In vivo studies further demonstrate their roles in regulating metabolism and in supporting gut barrier integrity. A critical aspect of pectin bioactivity involves promoting symbiotic interactions within the gut microbiota, increasing microbial diversity, and stimulating the production of beneficial metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids. Translational research, including clinical trials, has confirmed practical benefits for gastrointestinal management and metabolic health, and has highlighted the utility of pectins as adjuvants in pharmaceutical and nutritional formulations. This chapter highlights the link between pectins and the intersection of food science, nutrition, and biomedicine, emphasizing their potential as multifunctional ingredients for innovative health strategies.
Food allergy currently affects approximately 10 % of the global population, representing a significant health challenge with no known cure. This chapter describes the current and emerging food allergens, mechanisms of cross-reactivity and co-sensitisation, clinical implications and management, as well as future directions and research gaps. While current allergens such as milk, eggs, peanuts or crustaceans are the primary focus of existing regulations, the rise of novel protein sources, including edible insects, plant-based alternatives, algae and fungi, introduces new risks for de novo sensitisation. A critical distinction is made between cross-reactivity, where IgE recognises homologous proteins across different species (such as tropomyosins in crustaceans and insects) and co-sensitisation, which involves independent immune responses to unrelated allergens. Management relies on a multidisciplinary approach involving strict avoidance, patient education, and the use of epinephrine for emergencies. Advancements in food allergy diagnosis and integrated molecular databases are essential for distinguishing true primary allergies from cross-reactions and for assessing the risks of emerging foods. Furthermore, the chapter emphasises evidence-based prevention, noting that the early introduction of allergenic foods in infancy can significantly reduce the risk of developing allergies. Consistent monitoring and clear labelling remain vital for protecting allergic consumers in an evolving food landscape.
Melanin is a natural pigment found in plants, animals, insects and microbes. The melanin can be extracted from the natural resources using various methods such as solvent extraction, ultrasonication, enzyme assisted extraction, etc. The functional properties of melanin are useful for developing active packaging film and coatings. Melanin shows several important biological properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, UV-light barrier properties which are suitable for food packaging application. Moreover, the reinforcement of packaging polymers with melanin improves its physical properties such as mechanical, thermal and barrier properties. Furthermore, the presence of melanin as a bioactive ingredient in packaging polymers has been extensively reported to enhance the shelf life of perishable foods such as fruits, vegetables, dairy and meat. This chapter discusses the natural melanin incorporated packaging for developing smart food packaging.
Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a pervasive environmental contaminant with growing relevance to the food chain and human health. Defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, MPs originate from the degradation of larger plastic debris or are directly released as primary microplastics from industrial and consumer products. These particles are now widely detected in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, enabling their entry into the food chain through ingestion by a wide range of organisms. Evidence shows that MPs accumulate in lower trophic levels, such as plankton and invertebrates, and are subsequently transferred to higher trophic organisms, including fish, livestock, and ultimately humans. In addition to physical presence, MPs can act as vectors for hazardous chemicals, additives, and pathogenic microorganisms, potentially amplifying their toxicological effects. Although the extent of human exposure through food consumption is still under investigation, recent studies have identified MPs in seafood, salt, drinking water, fruits, vegetables, and processed foods. The potential health implications include inflammation, oxidative stress, and disruption of cellular processes, though significant knowledge gaps remain regarding long-term exposure and dose-response relationships. This review highlights current findings on the occurrence, transfer, and risks of MPs within the food chain, emphasizing the need for standardized analytical methods and comprehensive risk assessment to better evaluate their impact on food safety and public health.
The shift towards sustainable diets has increased interest in plant-based proteins and meat alternatives. The quality of protein depends on the content and digestibility of indispensable amino acids, which are shaped by molecular structure, food matrix interactions and processing. These factors influence amino acid bioavailability, digestion rates and metabolic outcomes. This work provides an overview of protein digestion, highlighting the influence of amino acid sequence, folding, β-sheet prevalence, disulfide crosslinking, aggregation and interactions with anti-nutritional factors on enzymatic accessibility and hydrolysis. Particular attention is given to plant-derived proteins and meat analogues, the digestibility of which is often modulated by intrinsic structural characteristics and complex matrix effects. Food processing has a dual effect, as mild treatments enhance proteolysis through unfolding and improved solubility, whereas harsh treatments cause aggregation, cross-linking, racemization and modifications that hinder enzyme access. This chapter covers in vitro digestion models, including the standardized static INFOGEST model, as well as semi-dynamic, and dynamic models. It details their uses, advantages and disadvantages for evaluating protein digestibility and nutritional value. Advanced tools such as high-resolution mass spectrometry and peptidomics help to characterized digestion products and offer a better understanding of how hydrolysis influences functionality and safety implications. The chapter also addresses protein quality metrics such as Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score, the challenges associated with them, and the need for a comprehensive framework to assess the nutritional and health impacts of alternative and novel plant proteins.
Biogenic amines are low-molecular-weight organic compounds with aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic structures that are produced through various metabolic activities of plants, animals, and microorganisms and may also occur naturally in foods. These compounds are mainly formed through the decarboxylation of amino acids, The formation of biogenic amines in foods by bacteria primarily depends on the availability of free amino acids, the presence of microorganisms possessing decarboxylase activity, and environmental conditions that support microbial growth. Since many protein-rich foods are susceptible to biochemical and microbial reactions, biogenic amines may develop in a wide variety of food products. Consequently, the consumption of foods containing elevated levels of biogenic amines may lead to toxic effects in humans and therefore represents a potential risk to public health. In aquatic products, the formation of biogenic amines is closely related to the high protein and free amino acid content of fish and other seafood. Following the death of the fish, bacteria naturally present in the tissues or introduced from the environment begin to proliferate. These microorganisms convert amino acids into biogenic amines through decarboxylase enzymes. Factors such as improper storage temperatures, disruption of the cold chain, prolonged storage periods, and inadequate hygienic conditions accelerate microbial growth and consequently increase the formation of biogenic amines. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanisms involved in biogenic amines formation and the potential risks they pose, while also addressing the factors influencing their formation in aquatic products, as well as prevention strategies and analytical methods used for their determination.
Ultrasound technology is a green technology which has been widely used in the food industry. The mechanism of ultrasound relies on acoustic cavitation, thermal and mechanical effect, which physically disrupts food matrices by breaking down cell walls, tenderizing meat fibers, and modifying the structures of starch and protein in food. These structural changes directly enhance textural qualities, such as achieving softer textures in fruits and vegetables or more tender meat, while also improving water retention for food products. Nutritionally, cell disruption during ultrasound treatment can also increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of essential nutrients, including vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals, by releasing them from their cellular compartments. Furthermore, ultrasound can enhance the bioavailability of proteins and lipids by altering their structures. In recent years, the applications of ultrasound include accelerating marination and tenderization in meat processing, modifying texture in dairy products, and improving the stability and nutritional profile of emulsions. The non-thermal nature of ultrasound also helps preserve heat-sensitive compounds, maintaining the original flavor and nutritional value of food. This chapter focuses on the mechanism and utilization of ultrasound in improving the nutritional quality of food, with the aim of further promoting the applications of ultrasound in the food industry.
Nitrosamines are a food safety concern due to their established toxicological relevance and their occurrence in widely consumed processed foods. In cured products, nitrite has a paradoxical role, acting both as a nitrosamine precursor and as an essential additive for safety, color, flavor, and oxidative stability. As a result, strategies based solely on nitrite reduction are increasingly viewed as insufficient and potentially detrimental to food safety. This chapter examines innovative approaches for reducing nitrosamine formation in foods, shifting the focus from additive elimination toward pathway-oriented control of nitrosation reactions. The chemical basis of nitrosamine formation is first reviewed, emphasizing the matrix- and process-dependent nature of nitrosation. Current mitigation strategies and their limitations are then discussed, highlighting the need for integrated solutions. Particular attention is given to plant-based extracts as natural inhibitors of nitrosation, as well as to emerging processing technologies that can modulate the physicochemical environment in which nitrosamines form. The chapter distinguishes between technologies with indirect mitigation potential and those supported by direct experimental evidence, avoiding overgeneralization. Synergistic strategies combining formulation-level inhibitors with process-level interventions are evaluated from mechanistic, technological, sensory, and risk management perspectives. Overall, this chapter argues that sustainable nitrosamine mitigation cannot be achieved through indiscriminate nitrite reduction, but rather through rational design of integrated processing and formulation systems that decouple nitrosamine formation from nitrite's essential technological functions. By consolidating current evidence and identifying key research gaps, this work provides a structured framework to guide future innovation in safer food processing.
Packaging research is one of the primary fields of study in the food ecosystem that go beyond conventional containment and protection. Innovative packaging recognizes the importance of food shelf-life stability, minimizes environmental effect, promotes health, and supports the circular economy. Highlighting the innovations in food packaging is crucial to ensuring that consumers enjoy healthful food. Consequently, insights into the incorporation of agents like antioxidants, antimicrobial, oxygen/moisture absorbers directly into the packaging material to achieve desired functionalities are underpinned. Food waste is also decreased by using sensors like biosensors and time-temperature indicators to track food parameters like freshness or temperature exposure and to give retailers and customers visible data in real time. Modern food packaging systems consider the use of barcodes, radio frequency identification tags, fast response codes, artificial intelligence, and internet of things devices to enhance food product monitoring and ensure food safety and quality throughout the supply chain. While packaging innovations are promising, challenges include higher production costs for sophisticated food packages development and comprehensive risk assessment of food contact chemicals. Hence, the need for better recycling infrastructure, and ensuring that sustainable materials can provide the same level of synergistic impact of barrier protection and functionalities of consumer quality food demands. Future developments in edible packaging, coatings based on nanotechnology, and food contact material packaging systems mechanisms call for the development of packaging that is readily recyclable, compostable, or reusable to harness sustainability issues.
Fermentation is among the oldest biotechnological processes and a modern platform for precision metabolic engineering, enabling the targeted production of health-promoting metabolites. The human gut microbiota, with its complex enzymatic potential, converts dietary substrates into a wide range of bioactive molecules, including short-chain fatty acids, vitamins, neuroactive compounds, and polyphenol-derived metabolites that influence host metabolism, immunity, and neurological functions. Advances in microbial genomics, systems biology, and synthetic biology now allow the design of fermentation processes and engineered microbial strains capable of producing specific metabolites with improved bioavailability and tailored health effects. Precision fermentation integrates traditional microbial fermentation with genome editing, metabolic flux optimisation, and AI-assisted pathway design to achieve predictable yields of vitamins, polyphenols, bioactive peptides, and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. These innovations create opportunities to develop functional foods, nutraceuticals, and personalized nutrition strategies that match metabolite profiles to an individual's microbiome composition. This chapter explores the mechanistic links between microbial metabolism and host health, reviews emerging fermentation technologies for targeted metabolite production, and highlights industrial case studies demonstrating the transition of precision fermentation from research to commercial applications.
This chapter examines hybrid food systems as a strategic response to the challenges of rising global protein demand, population aging, environmental constraints, and changing dietary expectations. Hybrid foods, defined as formulations combining animal-derived ingredients with plant, fungal, insect, or other novel protein sources, are presented as a pragmatic pathway to reconcile nutritional adequacy, technological functionality, sustainability, and consumer acceptance within the ongoing protein transition. The chapter reviews the wide range of raw materials used in hybrid food design, emphasizing their complementary roles. Plant and fungal ingredients contribute dietary fiber, bioactive compounds, and reduced environmental impact, while animal-derived components ensure high-quality protein, essential micronutrients, and techno-functional properties. These combinations enable nutritionally complete products while promoting resource efficiency and circularity through the valorization of underutilized by-products. Processing technologies are identified as central to hybrid food performance. Conventional and emerging processes, such as mixing, cooking, extrusion, non-thermal treatments, and 3D food printing, govern structure, sensory quality, digestibility, and nutrient bioavailability by shaping interactions between heterogeneous protein sources. Evidence reviewed in the chapter indicates that well-designed hybrid matrices can maintain, or even enhance, protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability compared to purely animal- or plant-based products. The chapter further addresses health implications, consumer acceptance, and environmental performance. Hybrid foods can reduce saturated fat intake and environmental footprints while maintaining sensory appeal, particularly for flexitarian consumers. Life cycle assessments and market analyses suggest that hybrid foods align with dietary guidelines and sustainability policies, positioning them as a scalable and socially acceptable lever for future food systems.
Milk, meat, and eggs are essential components of human diets, providing high-quality nutrients such as protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. The nutritional quality, safety, and shelf life of these animal-derived foods are strongly influenced by livestock production systems and feeding strategies. This chapter examines how different production models, including extensive grazing and intensive feeding systems, and emerging sustainable approaches such as agroecological, regenerative, and circular agriculture shape the nutrient composition, quality and safety of animal products. Global feeding strategies used in animal production are discussed, with emphasis on green forage versus hay and grain feeding in sheep, silage versus total mixed ration systems in dairy cattle, and cut-and-carry feeding compared with crop residues, grains, and agro-industrial by-products in goats. The chapter highlights the impact of these practices on the nutritional composition of milk, meat, and eggs, including fatty acid profiles, protein quality, micronutrients, carotenoids, antioxidants, and other bioactive compounds. Key food safety concerns associated with production systems and feeds, such as pathogen contamination, mycotoxins, chemical residues, and microbiological hazards, are addressed. In addition, shelf-life and preservative aspects are explored, focusing on lipid oxidation, spoilage microbiota, feed-based biofortification, natural preservatives, packaging interactions, and post-harvest handling.
The growing demand for healthier and more sustainable foods, while maintaining palatability, has driven innovation in food reformulation. This book chapter discusses ingredient-based strategies focused on improving the nutritional value and eating quality of novel health-oriented food products. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of key functional ingredients recovered from agri-food by-products, highlighting their nutritional relevance and challenges associated with their applications in food fortification, with particular emphasis on dietary fiber, polyphenols and lipid-derived bioactive compounds. The chapter further evaluates the use of alternative protein sources, including plant-, fungal- and insect-based foods, and reviews recent ingredient innovations aimed at addressing challenges related to eating experience. Additionally, novel strategies for the replacement of fat, salt and sugar with ingredients providing nutritional and health benefits are discussed. Overall, the chapter discusses how ingredient innovation and functional fortification strategies can support the development of healthier, more nutritious and sustainable, and consumer-acceptable food products.
Food waste represents one of the most significant challenges facing the current agri-food system, with significant economic, environmental and social implications. Within this context, the meat sector stands out for its high generation of by-products that represents a relevant environmental problem, although, on the other hand, such by-products constitute a potential source of high added-value compounds, especially due to their protein, amino acids, and bioactive peptides content. At the same time, the growth of the aquaculture sector demands new functional, sustainable and low-cost ingredients for the formulation of aquaculture feed, which opens up a new advantage for the revalorization of animal by-products. This chapter reviews the generation and uses of slaughterhouse farm animal by-products such as viscera, blood, bones and other residues, mainly through the hydrolysis of their proteins. Enzymatic hydrolysis is proposed as a sustainable and efficient alternative for the upcycling of these by-products, obtaining hydrolyzates with interesting nutritional properties for their incorporation as new functional ingredients in aquaculture feed improving not only the sustainability of the aquaculture sector, but also contributing to circular economy in the meat sector.
