Insurance plays an important role within the financial system as it is an area of responsibility and concern for the stability and efficiency of financial markets. The area of insurance is extremely important because its activity establishes the confidence of the insured in the insurance system, and indirectly provides confidence in the financial system. Social benefits of insurance are reflected in the improvement of protection and efficient compensation of damages and continuous payment of insured amounts. Organized insurance companies manage other people's savings and it is an important activity (Vaughan and Vaughan 2000, Bijelic 2002), which is not only reflected in the protection function but also confirms social and economic responsibility. At the annual level, there are various natural disasters worldwide that cause various types of losses, which are estimated at about 220 billion dollars, or three times more than in the first decade of the twenty-first century. In recent years, natural disasters have been intensified and the most devastating ones occur in regions poorly covered by insurance, so that certain countries have introduced mandatory insurance against natural disasters, while Serbia is still considering it. In addition, frequent natural disasters of great scope and intensity have become more frequent in Serbia in recent years. Confirmation of this condition is the estimation that local insurance companies paid up to five times more money for damages than in previous years. About half a million hectares of arable land were flooded, while only about 10% of owners insure their property. In recent years, rainfall was much greater than usual, so streams which do not appear in geographic maps transformed into torrential floods, which resulted in flood events even in regions with an altitude of a thousand meters above sea level(1). Property insurance from flooding is not part of the basic insurance packages of companies, which cover damage caused by lightnings, storms, hail and even a plane crash.
Soil erosion by water is one of the most widespread forms of soil degradation in the Europe. According to latest assessment performed with RUSLE2015 soil erosion model approximately 12.7% of arable lands in European Union is estimated to suffer from moderate to high erosion (>5 t ha(-1) yr(-1)). This equates to an area of 140,373 km (2) which equals to more than entire surface area of Greece (Panagos et al. 2015). In all land uses, the average rate of soil eroded across Europe (2.46 tonnes per ha annually) continues to outstrip soil formation rates (<1.4 tonnes per ha annually). The amount of soil lost to water erosion in Europe is almost 970 billion tonnes; equal to an area the size of Berlin - 1 metre deep. However, not all the news is bad; recent policy interventions through the common agricultural policy (CAP) have reduced the rate of soil loss in the EU by an average of 9.5% overall, and by 20% for arable lands (Panagos et al. 2015f). Latest developments in RUSLE2015 allow to incorporate the climate change scenarios and the forthcoming intensification of rainfall in North and Central Europe plus the land use changes driven by policies such as Common Agricultural Policy. Recently, a module of CENTURY model was coupled with the RUSLE2015 for estimating the effect of erosion in current carbon balance in European agricultural lands (Lugato et al. 2016)
The aim of this paper is to make a comparative analysis of the legislative framework for soil and water resource management in Serbia and some Balkan region countries with an established EU legislative framework and give recommendations to improve policy management in this area. The EU has developed a better legal framework for water resources in relation to the soil resources. The Water Framework Directive which was adopted in 2000 is the umbrella legislative framework for the later adoption of many important documents in the field of the water policy related to: the river basin management, flood protection, water quality protection and others. In 2006 the EU adopted the Soil Thematic Strategy, a very important document in the context of the management of soil resources that had emerged as a need to protect the basic functions of soil threatened by severe degradation processes. The Strategy included a proposal for the Soil Framework Directive, but unfortunately, this Directive has not been adopted yet. After adaptation of the EU Water Framework Directive, Serbia adopted the Water Law, which is partly harmonized with the EU Directive and has several significant drawbacks. The soil protection provisions in Serbia could be found in several laws: the Law of Agricultural Land, the Law on Environmental Protection and other legal and strategic documents. The most important law concerning soil protection in Serbia was the Law on Soil Protection adopted in December 2015. In addition to the analysis of the soil and water legal framework in Serbia, this paper analyzes the laws that have been enacted in the area of these two resources so far and their compliance with the EU directives, as well as those laws enacted in some countries in the region. From the neighboring countries, the analysis was carried out for Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. The selection of these countries was carried out for several reasons: firstly these countries are the former Republics of Yugoslavia, which had the same legal framework that has evolved in different ways, being more or less compliant with the legal framework of the EU.
The modeling of sediment discharge in ungagged basins has been always a challenge. The aim of this paper is to compare two modeling approaches with measured data. The data for the deposited sediment was provided by bathymetric measurements of the Kalimanci reservoir. It was calculated that mean annual sediment deposition is 214,325 m(3)/year. The first modeling approach was established using the Gavrilovic method. The catchment of the reservoir was subdivided into smaller sub-catchments and using GIS and remote sensing, the sediment discharge and sediment production were calculated. It was calculated that annually 202,551 m(3)/year sediment was deposited in the reservoir. The main part of the sediment was distributed by the river Bregalnica, 127,490 m(3)/year or 63%. The second approach was established by employing hydraulic modeling (HEC-RAS). The main scope of this approach was to establish the deposition of the sediment in the river Bregalnica and how much of this sediment reaches the reservoir. As sediment input in the HEC model was used the data for sediment discharge of all the river and torrent tributaries of the river Bregalnica, calculated also with the Erosion Potential Method by Gavrilovic. The sediment discharge using the second approach was calculated to be 152,231 m(3)/year. It was established that 75% of the input sediment in the river Bregalnica is deposited in the hydro-morphologic extension of the river, mainly in the valleys, where the slope of the river bed flattens. We conclude that calculated and measured values are similar and beside this all three approaches generate different insights into natural process.
Water, wind, or tillage-induced soil erosion can significantly degrade soil quality and decrease crop yield from farm fields. Traditionally, research in soil erosion is mostly focused on water or wind erosion. Recent studies over the past two decades, however, point to the importance of tillage operations as a source of soil translocation on undulating agricultural land. Tillage disturbs the soil not only vertically but also horizontally by throwing soil in the direction of tillage. These operations influence physical, chemical, and biological soil properties, which also affect soil quality and consequently plant growth. Moreover, the translocation of soil particles in topsoil by tillage practice has been recognized as an important factor of redistribution of soil over time and in the development of morphological changes within agricultural fields. Therefore, understanding the issue of topsoil displacement by tillage translocation is an important step towards developing tillage practices that do not degrade soil resources. This study was designed to assess the soil translocation effect in topsoil before and after 5 tillage sequences by using three different practices, namely mouldboard plough (I.), chisel plough (II.), and disc harrow (III.) in the Chernozems region in Sardice village (South Moravia, Czech Republic). The influence of different tillage practices on the changes in depth of topsoil was assessed through description of 40 shallow pits -10 pits were dug out before the tillage operations and then 30 more after five tillage operations. The results of the soil survey are based on the evaluation of the stratigraphy of the soil profile where the potential loss of topsoil was determined by a change in transition between the dark Ac horizon and yellow loess Ck horizon and by the type of transition. Shift of topsoil after five performed operations is in the range of 9-15 cm at the top position of convex-concave slope and 4-10 cm at the top of convex-linear slope. Significant shifts across each tillage practice (from III. to I.) are also apparent from the results of the experiment, which can be caused not only by the used technology but as well as by the shape of the slope.
The raspberry has become a profitable fruit species in the western area of Serbia. By studying the soil in western Serbia, areas have been identified which are suitable for the successful cultivation of raspberries. In the municipality of Ljubovija, based on soil analysis, a 833.04 ha plot for growing raspberries has been established. In recent years the raspberry has played a great role in the local economy. Economic analysis has confirmed the large economic benefits of growing this fruit. Additionally, a Cost/ Benefit analysis has shown the positive effect of raspberry production (1.634). The municipality predicts great social prosperity in the future, and the raspberry has a major role to play in this.
Poor conservation outcomes, following decades of intrusive resource management strategies and planned development have forced policy makers and scholars to reconsider the role of the community in resource use and conservation. Changes in the theoretical approach but also the practice of planning environmental protection measures have brought forth the issue of people participation. It is now widely assumed that participation of the population is required in order to achieve sustainable development and effective conservation, which can bring economic and social benefits to marginal groups and that the devolution of decision-making policy benefits biodiversity. The focus of our research is on two local communities in the area of Mt Besna Kobila. This mountain represents a valuable natural resource, while also being an area characterised by a poor rural population. The concept of 'sustainable livelihood strategies' plays a crucial role in the discussion of rural development, poverty reduction and the management of natural resources. Consequently, the concept of sustainable livelihood strategies was applied to two villages in this area. How to integrate sustainable livelihoods with the protection of natural resources and objectives of sustainable development is a central problem facing the Mt Besna Kobila area. In order to understand how local communities integrate available livelihood assets such as human, natural, social, physical and financial capital, a series of household interviews were conducted, which were then used as an applied method. Furthermore, the opinions of the local community about nature protection and the potential of tourism were studied as an incentive for the development of this area. The results show a lack of physical and financial capital in the surveyed villages. It was found that the migration of local people leads to a low quality of human capital in the mountain area, while on the other hand natural and social capital are highly valued. The results of this study indicate that local communities have positive opinions towards the conservation of natural resources on Mt Besna Kobila, and cooperation with local authorities and the development of ecotourism represent mechanisms to improve the socio-economic environment of the study area.
Global climate change and changes caused by human activity have had a considerable impact on river systems. Recent studies have observed different trends of water discharge and sediment transport for the largest rivers in the world. This paper deals with the trend analysis of suspended sediment load (Qs) at the most downstream hydrological station of the Juzna Morava (Mojsinje). The data, which were obtained from the Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia (RHSS), included daily values of water discharge (Q) and suspended sediment concentration (SSC) for the time period 1958-2007. The trend of sediment load was determined using the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test, while the Pettitt test was used to establish the transition year. The results show that the average perennial suspended sediment load for the given time period was 2.47x10(6) t (160.5 t/km(2)/yr), ranging from 0.04x10(6) t (2.6 t/km(2)/yr) to 9.85x10(6) t (640.3 t/km(2)/yr). The average decrease in sediment yield was 5.15 t/km(2)/yr with high statistical significance of 0.001. Using the Pettitt test, the year of 1985 was determined as a transition year in suspended sediment load. Suspended sediment load declined by 71% in the period after 1985.
Despite the fact that the torrential floods and forest fires in this century caused enormous damage to Serbia, there are no cadasters of torrential streams for most parts of the country, and there was no forest fires susceptibility zonation, whose indirect consequences include the intensification of torrential flooding. Therefore, it is necessary to approach solving these problems at a higher level, taking into account the synergistic effects of these disasters. In the catchment area of the Josanicka river, not only in this century, floods and forest fires have represented a very significant factors of the environmental change. For taking appropriate measures and reducing the possible consequences of these disasters in the near future, it is necessary to determine the most vulnerable areas, using various susceptibility indexes, GIS and remote sensing, but also to show how eventual occurrence of forest fires in such areas would result in increased flash flood vulnerability. Part of the Josanicka river basin is situated in National Park "Kopaonik", and the Josanicka spa, which could be, by its characteristics, one of the leaders of spa tourism in Serbia, is located in that basin, which further increases the need for protection of this territory from these hazards.
Phytoremediation and phytostabilisation of abandon open miming sites is very important process for rehabilitation of land and watercourses to an acceptable standard. Seed germination and seedling establishment in post-mining sites is of great importance for early succession and restoration patterns. Several of early colonizers are tree species, but they could be very important elements of early successions and influence dynamic of early revegetation in disturbed areas. Spontaneous colonization of mining spoils is difficult due to extremely difficult condition such as extremely low or high pH, mineral soil, low water capacity and nutrient deficiency. Besides this, high concentration and solubility of toxic metals in mining areas could be the most limiting factor for plant establishment. We analyzed parameters of seed germination and seedling growth of early successional tree species (two broad leaf and two pine species species against): Ailanthus altissima, Acer negundo, Pinus silvestris, Picea abies in several experimental systems with three different concentration of toxic metals (Pb, Cd, Zn) to assess influence of metal toxicity in early phase of plant development. Lead in applied concentrations (25, 50 and 100 mu M) did not affect significantly the seed germination percentage in Ailanthus altissima and Acer negundo while cadmium in highest concentrations (100 mu M) caused reduction of the germination percentage, germination index and vigor index in both species. Analysis of the parameters of early seedling development indicates the most pronounced toxic effects of cadmium. In Ailanthus altissima Zn treatments caused significant inhibition of shoot growth and repress development of assimilating organs in concentrations of 25, 100 and 250 mu M. In concentration of 25 mu M Zn caused an inhibition of the root growth. The spruce and Scot pine seeds which were developed on substrates with addition of heavy metals solutions showed significant tolerance to presence of all metals, but percentage of germinating seeds depended on the type of metal and its concentration. The seed of P. abies demonstrated higher tolerance to presence of heavy metals in lower concentrations, then seed of Pinus sylvestris and germinated in all variants. In the conditions of highest concentrations, the seeds of both species did not sprout regardless of the type of metal. The P. abies seedlings were very tolerant to the presence of all metals. The highest concentrations of cadmium had a significant influence on the decrease of the number of the seedlings which survived, as well as on the decrease of biomass in comparison to lead. Zinc had the least adverse effect on the growth and survival of seedlings. P. sylvestris seedlings did not exhibit the same tolerance for the presence of heavy metals.
The land on which our studies were conducted (Russia, Republic of Bashkortostan, South Ural), according to the scheme of soil and agroecological zoning belongs to the steppe zone. Intensive grain farming and livestock has developed there. It is dominated by soils with high humus content and inadequate moisture supply (Chernozem ordinary, Chernozem southern and Meadow-Chernozem soils) which are eroded and deflated. In hydromorphic and semi-hydromorphic conditions we have encountered saline and saline alkali soils. With increasing aridity the fraction of saline soils increases. Recurrent drought, large areas of saline and saline alkali soils completely do not provide projected yields. Productivity of alkaline land remains extremely low. Therefore there is need for a detailed study of their physical and chemical properties to allow developing effective methods for the management and prevention of erosion and deterioration of the basic properties. Studies have shown that the most common saline soils Chernozem ordinary and Chernozem southern, have very different capacity, humus content, degree of salinization and alkalinization and development of the soil profile. The morphological profile of Chernozem ordinary and Chernozem southern in the presence of salinization and alkalinization is characterized by a high density and prismatic structure, becoming columnar structure, as salts efflorescence. These soils need further study and require the development of new farming systems taking into account climate change.
The process of land consolidation has provided a large space for implementation of erosion measures and also others (e.g., measures for water management, new roads, ecological measures) in the Czech Republic. The measures are designed according to the valid national methodology, which is based on recent scientific knowledge in the field of soil, water and landscape conservation and their implementation is supported with requisite legislature. Although the land consolidation process does not advance as quickly as required, it brings positive results. This text presents some results of a research project aimed at improving the efficiency of land consolidations in soil, water and landscape protection and providing arguments supporting next steps of this process in the Czech Republic. A method of multi-criteria analysis was used to evaluate the complex effects of implemented land consolidation measures. Both technical efficiency and impact on landscape functions were considered. The evaluation involved various factors: efficiency in reduction of soil erosion and flood risk, influence on landscape ecological stability, aesthetics and patency. The developed method was tested in 25 model cadastres with completed land consolidation. The results demonstrate that the effect of implemented measures on soil and water conservation is favourable and its influence on selected landscape non-production functions is positive.
Rainfall erosivity (R) is considered as one of the most important parameters of the universal soil loss equation (USLE), which directly reflects the potential of soil erosion caused by rainfall. Soil erosion is based on the quantification of its temporal and spatial variation. The R was calculated using the simple algorithm model based on the monthly data rainfall data from four precipitation stations in the Lianshui basin from 2000 to 2009 and its temporal and spatial variation is analyzed in this article. The results showed that: (1) From 2000 to 2009, there was generally a decreasing trend of R in Lianshui basin (the trend coefficient was -0.1548); (2) In the basin, the average value of annual R over the last 10 years was 5,489.81 MJ . mm . (hm(2) . h . a)(-1), of which the maximum and the mimimum values were 10,550.45 MJ . mm . (hm(2) . h . a)(-1) (2002) and 2,353.61 MJ . mm . (hm(2) . h . a)(-1) (2003) respectively. However, there was no significant difference in R between stations; (3) There was one peak in the intra annual variation of R, which was between April and June, accounting for 56.8% of the annual R, and the maximum value appeared in June; (4) The average values of R of each station ranged from 2,353.61 to 10,550.45 MJ . mm . (hm(2) . h . a)(-1). The temporal and spatial distribution indicated a gradually increasing R-value from the Northeast to the Southwest of the basin.
Sustainable management of freshwater resources has gained increasing importance at regional, national and global scales. Climate and freshwater quantity and quality are interconnected in complex ways. Vulnerability of surface water quality for drinking water supply is mainly due to the change in using land, which is related to climate, hydrology and water resources management. Different catchments at one and the same region respond differently to such changes, depending largely on catchment's physico-geographical and hydrogeological characteristics and on the amount of reservoir or groundwater storage in that catchment. The purpose of the present study is to assess the current and make predictions on future drinking water quality vulnerability at the watershed level of the Ticha river lake (reservoir) under anticipated conditions of climate change. The applied methodological approach was based on assessing the main drivers that cause higher vulnerability of drinking water quality - land cover and land use practices. Pollution indices (PLIj) for each class of the CORINE land cover for 2006 within the Ticha watershed reservoir and water quality indexes were calculated taking into account export coefficients for nitrates and phosphorus. Maps for distinct scenarios of the future land use for the studied territory were developed according to the methodology, proposed in the Prospective Environmental analysis of Land-Use Development in Europe (PRELUDE) project. It was found that in terms of water quality vulnerability - only small watersheds used for agriculture purposes are moderately vulnerable. Over the forecast period - 2020-2050 the watershed area is anticipated to remain in the same vulnerability category.
River basins are dynamic systems characterized by a complex arrangement of fluxes between the land and water environment. This paper presents a case study of Ulza reservoir (Vts = 240* 10(6)m(3)) in Albania, whose primary use is energy production. The great part of the eroded material is gathering in this accumulation. As a result of high intensity processes in the catchment, a significant part of the storage is filled up with sediments. The main aim of this study was through erosion monitoring to define erosion intensity on various land use and slope on a basin level. The first step was defining land cover/use on the basin (A = 1244 km(2)) and slope analyses (Iav = 38.52%). For purpose of erosion monitoring 48 monitoring plots (Gavrilovic type) were set on field. The monitoring method for erosion and run off depends on the needs and tasks. On the Ulza reservoir basinvarious erosion processes by type (sheet erosion, rills, gullies, fluvial erosion processes, and mass movement erosion) and intensity (low, mid, high to extreme) were noticed. The main idea in this research is that erosion monitoring plots should imitate conditions on the basinas far as possible and appropriate and part of plots set up on forest or transitional land were with irregular surface or slope. Slope of plots vary from 10% (meadows) up to 75% (plot in forest). During the first phase erosion monitoring has been implemented from November 2012 to August 2013, and in the second phase from march to August 2014. Correlation between month sum of precipitation and month sum of runoff is extremely high and except for "plantation on meadow" and "transitional woodland class", for other Land cover types values is >0.93. Correlation between sediment load and precipitations vary from 0.27 (plantation on meadow), 0.77 (forest) up to 0.92 for "plantation young" class. Regarding the runoff and sediment load, forest shows lower result although mean slope (56.2%) of plots that simulate forest is much higher than others. In a case of runoff where there is no significant differences, the ratio between any land cover/use class and forest is as follow: forest - 1, transitional woodland - 1.12; plantation - 1.14; grassland - 1.18; and arable land - 1.19. In a case of erosion production and sediment load, role of forest is more important and the ratio is: forest - 1, grassland - 1.25; plantation - 1.79; transitional woodland - 1.9; and arable land - 2.25. The results showed a clear relation between land cover/use and slope and the level of erosion and run off.
Demographic indicators influence on the state of erosion of the Panevljanska river watershed in Southeastern Serbia. Erosion intensity decreased through the studied period, from excessive to weak (Gavrilovic method). Changes in sediment transport also decreased (Polyakov-Kostadinov method). These results refer to the period 1971-2011. All demographic indicators have a negative trend as well. Noted statements confirm that decreasing trend of demographic indicators had an impact on decreasing trend of erosion processes, related to land utilization. The correlation between soil loss and demographic indicators could be used for the future perspectives.
In this paper the analysis of plant indicator values, several environmental variables and climate change within invaded ecosystems are presented. The aim of the paper was to investigate how climate change will affect floristic structure and distribution. Plant indicator values were determined according to Kojic et al. (1997). Canonical Correspondence Analysis was performed for Asteretum lanceolati community at 13 different sites in broader Belgrade area (Serbia) using Past 3.12 software (Hammer et al. 2001). For analyzing the effects of climate change IPCC's SRES scenarios were used (Nakicenovic and Swart 2000). Coupled Regional Climate Model, EBU-POM (Djurdjevic and Rajkovic 2008) is used for the climate simulations. The strongest gradients influencing communities at these sites are moisture and soil nutrients. The communities are mesophylic, mesothermic to thermophylic, and soils have mostly basic pH reaction, which is characteristic for alluvial habitats, and preferred by named community. The communities prefer such habitats. Communities have the ability to adapt to a great range of environmental condition. According to climate change analysis, long periods of decreased amounts of precipitation, and high temperatures will not be suitable for vast majority of species, especially ones with high demands on water supply, such as: Alisma plantago-aquatica L., Galium palustre L., Oenanthe aquatic (L.) Poir., Rorippa amphibia (L.) Besser, Veronica anagallis-aquatica L., Carex lasiocarpa Ehrh., etc. Also, high temperatures and high amounts of precipitation will be significant for the already prolonged flowering period, and the life cycle of many invasive plants. It is found that many plants in the studied communities are alarming examples, because they are allelopathic clonal plants which can strongly cause the displacement of native plants.
The majority of non-native forest species, which have been brought to Europe (such as Grand fir, Black locust, Douglas fir, Red oak, Sitka spruce, Red ash, Maple ash) are species with extensive natural distribution ranges. They come from different climatic environments. We analyzed the prospects and challenges for non-native tree species in Serbia according to elements of ecology, silviculture and climate change. We have used the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats approach in combination with analytic hierarchy process. We used preference data from opinion leaders in NNTSs in Serbia who have an intensive knowledge and experience in this area. Results reveal that strengths and treats in all three cases are dominant strategy in NNTSs. The analysis is based on data collected from a survey made throughout Serbia between December 2015 and June 2016. There were 28 respondents dealing with NNTSs in Serbia. Within-group analysis of preferences shows that faster adaptation to changing ecological conditions was the most important strength of NNTSs ecological characteristics with a priority score of 0.075. With a priority score of 0.1 replacements of native species of decreasing health condition was shown to be the major opportunity factor. The most serious weakness, with a factor priority score of 0.05, was invasiveness and possible disappearance of native tree species. The greatest problems of NNTSs in Serbia are: lack of experience in the silviculture of NNTS, non-visibility of the state to NNTSs, and degradation of tree physiological status and susceptibility to pathogens. Strengths are: faster adaptation to changing ecological conditions, good adaptive to local climate and biodiversity richness. In this study, we attempt to assess the effect of ecologic, silviculture and climate changes on NNTSs adoption decisions. We use the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) approach in combination with analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to achieve this task.
The territory of the Russian Plain can be divided into two parts in terms of agricultural activity. The northern half is taiga zone with an extremely high proportion of forested area and very limited arable fields. Southern half of the Russian Plain is located in broad-leaf forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones and it is characterized by a high proportion of arable lands which was subject to intensive cultivation from 300 -350 years ago in broad-leaf landscape zone up to about one century ago on the south-east of steppe zone. It is one of the main agricultural regions of Russia with relatively high rates of sheet, rill and gully erosion. The latest quantitative assessment of soil losses for the entire area of the Russian Plain was undertaken in the middle of 1980ies, when maps of soil losses and gully density were constructed. Modified version of USLE model and State Hydrological Institute erosion model were used to evaluate soil losses from arable lands during the warm period of the year and during snow-melting respectively. Land use transformation, climate changes and crop rotation modification during last 25-35 years lead to changes of soil erosion rates in different parts of the studied area. A complex approach is used to assess recent trends of sheet, rill and gully erosion in different landscape zones of the study area. Investigations were undertaken in 6 selected sectors (area of each sector is about 6-10 thousand km(2)), uniformly distributed over the area of the Southern half of the Russian Plain. Changes of the different parameters, including some meteorological and hydrological parameters, land use, USLE C-factor, were determined for the period 1990-2014. The contribution of each of the mention factors on erosion rate trend changes is different in the different landscape zones of the study area. It was found, that decreasing surface runoff from cultivated slope during snowmelt is the main driver of the reduction of the gully headcut retreat rate as well as sheet and rill erosion.
