The catchments of the reservoirs Spilje and Globocica are positioned in the western part of North Macedonia. These catchments are situated in the higher part of the Drim/Drin catchment which is a transboundary catchment stretching in several countries. The two catchments were mapped for erosion according to the Erosion potential method by Gavrilovic. In order to assess the Erosion potential method, a bathymetric survey was also carried out. The two erosion maps created for the two reservoir catchments show very different results. The catchment of the reservoir Globocica is one of the most preserved catchments in the country from soil erosion point of view with average erosion coefficient of 0.21, specific annual production of erosive sediment is 394 m3 km-2 yr-1, the specific annual transport of erosive sediment is 247 m3 km-2 yr-1 and the annual transport of erosive sediment is 74,543 m3yr-1. On the other hand, the catchment of the reservoir Spilje is one of the most erosive areas in the country, with average erosion coefficient of 0.44, specific annual production of erosive sediment of 776 m3 km-2 yr-1, the specific annual transport of erosive sediment of 541 m3 km-2 yr-1 and annual transport of erosive sediment is 563,154 m3yr-1. The sedimentation of both of the reservoirs was measured only once in 2014 and 2015. The accumulated sediment in Spilje is 36.7 x106 m3 or mean annual intensity of sedimentation is 815,555 m3yr-1. On the other hand, the Globocica reservoir has much lower values for sedimentation, 3.3x106 m3 or mean annual intensity of sedimentation of 67,346 m3 yr-1.

The most recent climate change scenarios indicate an increase in extreme climate events (rainfall) and therefore an increase in soil loss. Strumica River is a tributary of river Struma/Strimon – a transboundary basin in North Macedonia (Strumica), Bulgaria and Greece that flows to the Aegean Sea. Most of the models incorporated in several software packages, use the USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation). USLE-based models (RUSLE, MUSLE) are designed to model soil loss on gentler slopes and in agricultural areas. Furthermore, the model considers soil removal, but not the mass movement processes. On the other hand, the EPM (Erosion Potential Method by Gavrilovic), considers all soil particles (including rocks and mass movement) as well as all slope topography. The EPM considers the whole basin area. The aim of this research is to assess the differences between the two methods in the case study of the Strumica river basin. The results show differences in the quantities of the produced sediment. On the basin level, according to EPM, the quantity of annual produced sediment is 3.38 m3 ha year-1 while RUSLE depicted an annual soil loss at 1.59 t ha-1year-1. When observing just the agricultural land, according to EPM, the annual produced sediment is 4.22 m3 ha year-1 while according to RUSLE, the annual produced sediment is 2.84 t ha-1year-1. The EPM yields higher quantities because it takes into account the gully erosion and mass movement processes.

The EU countries are obliged to harmonize their legislation in the field of flood protection, and thus torrential floods, in accordance with the Water Framework Directive (WFD) which was adopted in 2000. Two EU countries, Austria and Italy, and three Western Balkan countries were selected for the strategic and legal framework of torrential flood control: Serbia, North Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition to the legal framework of torrential flood control in EU countries, policies and strategies related to this area were studied for comparative analysis with non-EU countries. The strategic framework for the protection of water resources, and in particular torrential flood protection, is lacking in all Western Balkan countries. The aim of this chapter is to determine the directions of future strategic directions and torrential flood control policies in the Western Balkans based on the experiences of EU countries, advantages and disadvantages of the existing strategic, and legal frameworks.

The USLE / RUSLE method is the most widely used method in the world for calculating erosion intensity expressed as soil loss. IN the latest period, a map of soil loss EU was made by this method. One of the key parameters for applying the RUSLE method is the R - erosive energy factor for which a global world map model has been created too. In the Republic of North Macedonia there are no available data to use original access for calculation this factor. That is why the approach is based on the annual precipitations. Several equations developed in different parts of the world were analyzed. Calculation was done for data from 17 gauges stations in the country, and at the same time modeling has been done for the whole country on the basis of altitude. Comparison of the obtained values with the results for the border areas and high mountains in Greece and Bulgaria, showed that they are realistic and enable o be further applied in the final modeling for creation of Soil Loss map in the Republic of North Macedonia using RUSLE method. Average R - factor in states amounts to 533 (MJ mm ha-1 h-1 yr-1), and rises from 437 (MJ mm ha-1 h-1 yr-1) in Krivolaka district in the central part of the country, to 835 (MJ mm ha-1 h-1 yr-1) in the southwestern part of Shar Planina and Korab mountains.

Land degradation neutrality (LDN) is defined as a "state whereby the amount and quality of land resources nec-essary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security remain stable or increase within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems". The baseline is expressed as the initial (t0) estimated value of each of the three indicators, used as proxies of land-based natural capital and the ecosystem services that flow from that land base: land cover/land use change, land productivity status and trends, soil organic carbon status and trends. The baseline of LDN was calculated with estimation of the average values across the 10 years baseline period of the following indica-tors: Land Cover/Land Cover change (LC/LCC), Land Productivity Dynamics (LPD) and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC). Three tier approaches for computation of the selected indicators were used: Tier 1: Global/regional Earth observation, geospatial information and modelling; Tier 2: National statistics (only for LC/LCC) and Tier 3: Field survey. Most sig-nificant changes in LC for the period 2000/2012 are in the categories of Forest land and Shrubs/grasslands. According the global data sets used for analysis of LPD, the total affected area with depletion of Land productivity for the period 2000/2010 is identified on a only 2.35 % of the country territory. The available global data sets gives a model SOC lev-els for the period 2000/2010. According these data, the total loss of SOC in our country is estimated on 3951 t.

River basins are dynamic systems characterized by a complex arrangement of fluxes between the land and water environment. This paper presents a case study of Ulza reservoir (Vts = 240* 10(6)m(3)) in Albania, whose primary use is energy production. The great part of the eroded material is gathering in this accumulation. As a result of high intensity processes in the catchment, a significant part of the storage is filled up with sediments. The main aim of this study was through erosion monitoring to define erosion intensity on various land use and slope on a basin level. The first step was defining land cover/use on the basin (A = 1244 km(2)) and slope analyses (Iav = 38.52%). For purpose of erosion monitoring 48 monitoring plots (Gavrilovic type) were set on field. The monitoring method for erosion and run off depends on the needs and tasks. On the Ulza reservoir basinvarious erosion processes by type (sheet erosion, rills, gullies, fluvial erosion processes, and mass movement erosion) and intensity (low, mid, high to extreme) were noticed. The main idea in this research is that erosion monitoring plots should imitate conditions on the basinas far as possible and appropriate and part of plots set up on forest or transitional land were with irregular surface or slope. Slope of plots vary from 10% (meadows) up to 75% (plot in forest). During the first phase erosion monitoring has been implemented from November 2012 to August 2013, and in the second phase from march to August 2014. Correlation between month sum of precipitation and month sum of runoff is extremely high and except for "plantation on meadow" and "transitional woodland class", for other Land cover types values is >0.93. Correlation between sediment load and precipitations vary from 0.27 (plantation on meadow), 0.77 (forest) up to 0.92 for "plantation young" class. Regarding the runoff and sediment load, forest shows lower result although mean slope (56.2%) of plots that simulate forest is much higher than others. In a case of runoff where there is no significant differences, the ratio between any land cover/use class and forest is as follow: forest - 1, transitional woodland - 1.12; plantation - 1.14; grassland - 1.18; and arable land - 1.19. In a case of erosion production and sediment load, role of forest is more important and the ratio is: forest - 1, grassland - 1.25; plantation - 1.79; transitional woodland - 1.9; and arable land - 2.25. The results showed a clear relation between land cover/use and slope and the level of erosion and run off.

The main goal of this paper is to implement modern, up to date, geomatics techniques and technologies in the environment. The entire database is made in GIS software, a GNSS device is used to record detailed points on the field and for recording and preparing a new orthophoto was used a modernly sophisticated drone (UAV) DJI Mavic Pro. QGIS (Quantum Geographic Information System), as main software, was used for data processing and implement measurements taken from the field, and other utility programs were used to perform the tasks. The subject of the paper is the Promenade riverside Kumanovo, Macedonia, which is a convenient place to try and implement this data processing method. First of all, it is a small area with a pretty large scale which makes it easier to recognize and practically examine the details on the field. Also this method can be applied in the forestry, agriculture, water management, geodesy, spatial planning, sustainable development and environmental protection.

Torrent floods bring enormous harm to people and nature, but also can make long-term consequences. These natural hazards origin from the mountains but their consequences are usually felt in downstream sections, particularly in this case, consequences from flood event were felt in the settlements in Tetovo region located on the alluvial fans but in some mountain villages too. Almost all torrents that origin from the Shar Mountain made damages. More of them are dry during the year and there is flow only after heavy rainfalls or snow-melting. Main objective of this study was to define reasons for this catastrophic event. i.e. reasons for appearance of high debris flow discharge and reasons for damages. Filed observation was done immediately after the event. Terrain was recognized, somewhere in detail. Satellite images done after the event were used too. Beside it, air video material and photoset was used to define some areas. Desktop work was focused mainly on various hydrological analyses. Heavy rainfall and hail on the Shar Mountain result in huge runoff and discharge. Geological composition (schists and carbonates) and steep slopes, result in huge quantity of sediments even Boulder that become part of discharge of this fluid. Sediment was formed as a result of various processes: pluvial and fluvial erosion (formed new gullies, deepened existed gullies, old deposits were eroded that means significant quantity of material was produced and become subject of downstream transport. Beside it, high intensity rainfalls and lateral erosion on the foot of the slopes caused landslides (slow or sudden falling of material into the torrent bed). As a result of weathering, rockfall and talus cone significant quantity of rocky material achieve the torrent bed too. Gravity and huge quantity of water transported all this material downstream in the villages. There were several processes into the stream beds: flowing, traction and rolling of higher particles, even sliding. Depend on the relief characteristics and hydraulic parameters of the stream bed, happened the following physical processes: debris flow, hyper concentrated flow, mud flow even debris slide. The volume of debris by Djepciski Poroj was estimated as 250000 m3 (part of this origin from previous flooding). An absence of structural measures especially barrages and irregular land use pattern, absence of urban plans, houses along and even into the stream bed, caused enormous damages in the settlements including 6 died, a lot of injured, 24 families evacuated, damages on houses, bridges, roads, infrastructure, on hydraulic structure and on agricultural land. All torrents are assigned as debris flow or debris flood torrents.

The south and southeast region of Europe is significantly prone to water erosion. In parts of the region, erosion has reached a stage of irreversibility and in some places erosion has practically ceased because there is no soil left. In the recent period several models and approaches in a GIS environment were developed using available database for erosion factors on the European level on which data about water erosion in Western Balkan countries is missing. Sci-entists in the Western Balkan countries faced with the erosion problem for years, developed own models or prepared various erosion risk maps using national databases. The aim of this study is to compare results of water erosion inten-sity in the Western Balkan countries using models on wider level (European maps) and national researches. The basic methodological approach in this paper is an analysis of secondary data, using the method of "content analysis" of various data sources. Inductive and deductive qualitative analyses were used and finally the method of "comparative analysis" is applied, too. Through the analysis of national researches it was estimated that erosion intensity in the WB countries is 656 m3/ha (similar to 6.56 t/ha) and the total amount of annual produced erosive material is 373.8·106 m3. The most erosive countries in Europe are Albania and Montenegro where mean annual intensity of erosion is > 10 t/ha. Macedonia together with Italy, Portugal, Slovenia and Romania is in the second group of countries, where ero-sion intensity is 5–10 t/ha.

Environmental flow is defined as the flow that is necessary to ensure the existence of habitats in a stream. Ac-cording to the practice in Macedonia, environmental flow is 10% of mean annual flow but flow variation is signifi-cant and this approach could generate doubts for engineers. The final aim of this study was to be recommended the most appropriate method for this engineering purpose in Macedonia. This study consists of two parts: a) evaluation of the most used world methods in national conditions, and b) defining of environmental flow using previously selected method on case study. The proposed approach was tested for the "Dragor" water supply system. Using basically Ten-nant approach, and making modification according to the regional circumstance related to hydrological regime, envi-ronmental flow was calculated for 3 different periods of flow values that’s follow the hydrogram.

Soil erosion has been occurring over the geological time. Inappropriate human activities accelerate this process. Soil erosion by water is a widespread problem throughout Europe. The South and Southeast regions of Europe are significantly prone to water erosion. In parts of the region, erosion has reached a stage of irreversibility and in some places erosion has practically ceased because there is no soil left. Scientists from the Balkan countries faced with the erosion problem for years, paid significant attention to solving problems with erosion. The aim of this study is to compare the results of water erosion intensity in the Balkan countries with other European countries. The basic methodological approach in this paper is an analysis of secondary data, using the method of “content analyses” of various data sources. Inductive and deductive qualitative analysis was used and finally the method of “comparative analysis” is applied too. Through the analysis of national researches, it was estimated that erosion intensity in Balkan countries is 548 m3km-2 (similar to 5.48 tha-1) and the total amount of annual produced erosive material is 419.9 *106 m3. The mean European average annual erosion intensity is 3.13tha-1. The most erosive countries in Europe are the Balkan countries, Albania and Montenegro where the mean annual intensity of erosion is > 10 tha-1.

While soils are as essential to human society as air and water, soil degradation has not received nearly as much attention as the threats to these other elements. On the map of water erosion of Europe, Southern Europe is red “colored”. Erosion in the Balkan countries, through both on and offsite effects is a major cause of soil and water degradation. This paper compares erosion control works in several countries from the Balkan region (Macedonia, Serbia, and Bulgaria). The basis for comparative analyses was various country reports as well as available published papers. Quantitative method-text analyze method was used for these study. Natural conditions in the Balkan countries contribute to the appearance of various erosion forms and the intensity of the erosion processes. Over the history of these countries, people who settled this region used the available natural resources to fill their needs (tree cutting, incorrect plugging, overgrazing), which contributed to soil erosion. Organized erosion control works in the Balkans started in the beginning of the 20th century (1905 in Bulgaria). The highest intensity of erosion control works were carried out during the period 1945 – 1990. Various erosion control works were launched. Bulgaria had a large anti-erosion afforestation, almost 1 million ha. Bulgaria's ecological river restoration approach has been in use for almost 50 years. Serbia contributed significant erosion and torrent control works on hilly agricultural areas. Specific screen barrages and afforestation on extremely dry areas are characteristic in Macedonia. A common characteristic for all countries is a high decrease in erosion control works in the last 20 years.

Natural hazards are very common from the very beginning of the existence of man and have been an on-going problem for millennia. Forecasted climate changes would cause increase of erosion intensity because of the increase of the temperatures would contribute to forest die-back, wild fires and soil degradation, and the increase of intensive rainfall frequency could dramatically intensify soil erosion and torrential floods. A lot of natural hazards can be triggered by a single natural occurrence. The use of multi-hazard mapping is a good way to perceive the effect of the same natural occurrence on the triggering mechanism of different natural hazards.The aim of this paper is to explain the methodology for development of multi-hazard maps in a GIS environment. The full process of development of a multi-hazard map will be described through the theoretical frame of the natural hazards, further on to composition of the single hazards in a multi criteria GIS environment and finally integration of the single hazards in one multi-hazard map.The chosen study area is the Vodno Mountain which is in the vicinity of the city of Skopje which has been permanently subjected to several major hazards in the past from forest fires and soil erosion with torrential floods.Multi-hazard mapping is a good approach for observing several hazards on one place in which each hazard could be observed separately and integrally. This is an effective tool for the decision makers for planning purposes and should be integrated into the daily operational applications.

Torrential flows (flash floods) are very often. There isn't any city in Macedonia without problems with torrents and consequences of them: sedimentation of lot of material in the urban area, destroyed streets, bridges, houses, other infrastructure facilities and they cover agricultural land with sterile sediments (stones, gravel, etc.). In this analyzes one torrential group was analyzed: torrents - tributaries of Kamenicka Reka (tributary of reservoir Kalimanci). Catchement area of Kamenicka Reka is 112.2 km2. This area is maybe the most erosive catchment in the Republic of Macedonia. Whole are belonging to I, II and III category of destruction. Mean values of erosion quotient is Z = 0.67. Mean annual production of erosive material is 150 000 m3. There are a lot of erosion control works constructed in the up mined torrents. Sediment behind barrages was geodetically measured. Data about forest cover and elements was extracted from forest managing plan. There are 51 built barrages in torrents-tributaries and about 618 other cross construction. A great part of barelands in the catchment was afforested. As a result of all erosion control works, at about 1 000 000 m3 sediment is deposed behind the cross constructions.

In this paper are presented results related to forest decline as a consequence of climate changes in last decade of the XX Th century. Some regions in RM are assigned as vulnerable to desertification, so the analyzes were related to conditions in these regions. Meteorological data from 32 stations was analyzed. Comparison between data for the period from 1951 to 1990 and period 1991-2000 was made. According to analyzes there is considerable increase of the temperature from one hand and decrease of the precipitation from the other. According to the meteorological data and preliminary calculations there are 4 regions with arid climate and 10 regions with semi-arid climate which is quite considerable. As a result of the climate changes there are some regions with very large amplitude of changes as in the case of Valandovo and Kocani. In Valandovo there is increase of the temperature for 8,45% or 1,2 o C and decrease of the precipitation for 20,33% or 124,2 mm and in Kocani the increase of the temperature is for 10% or 1,3 o C and the decrease of the precipitation for 7,18% or 37,5 mm. Some investigations related to forest decline were carried out in 3 localities in the period from 1991 to 2003. Target of the investigations were oak forests. One of the localities is situated in the region vulnerable to desertification. The oak forest health condition was estimated visually. According to the methodology classification there are 5 categories of the forest health condition (I- health trees, V-dead trees). In the first year of observation there were 80% health trees, but in the next two years there was drastic decrease of tree health (32% in 1993 up to 27.9% in 1999). Percent of dead trees increased from 0.9% (1991) up to 5.4% in 1999.

Abstract Bregalnica is one of the largest rivers (225 km long, 4307 km,), are recorded sites with high an- nual erosion rates, among the highest in the Republic of Macedonia. In respond of such erosion risk, from the 1960-ties detailed studies with erosion modeling and mapping for the area are performed, dominantly based on traditional empiric model of prof. S. Gavri- lovic. Having in mind fast transformation in the landscape, previous traditional approach is updated by implementation of suitable GIS tools. Keywords: Soil Erosion, Deposition, DTM (DEM), Satellite Imagery, GIS.

The object of this research is the analysis of intensity of rainfalls with short duration and probability of occurrence over the Republic of Macedonia. There are 8 meteorological stations in the Republic of Macedonia that have long-term (> 30years) pluviografic data. This data was completed and generated in some previous analyses. Probability of the occurrence has been estimated testing and using difference distribution (Gumbel, Galton, Pirson, Freget, Bernoulli, and Gauss). The intensity of the rainfalls expressed as (mm/min) and (l/s.ha) was estimated. Then using above data, some formulas was defined. These formulas can be used to estimate the rainfall intensity depend of previously defined so called "duration of effective rain". For these researches was used data from the follow gauge stations: Demir Kapija (110 a.m.s.l), Skopje (301 a.m.s.l.), Stip (326 a.m.s.l.), Bitola (586 a.m.s.l.), Prilep (673 a.m.s.l), Kriva Palanka (693 a.m.s.l.), Ohrid (760 a.m.s.l) and Lazaropole (1332 a.m.s.l.). These gauge stations are shown on figure 1.