We investigated the influence of orthographic transparency, and learners' awareness of it, on the second language (L2) phonolexical encoding of Brazilian Portuguese (BP) mid-vowel contrasts. In BP, accent marks indicate vowel quality (mid-closed vs. mid-open), resulting in transparent grapheme-phoneme correspondences, whereas words without accents are opaque. To test whether transparency benefits phonolexical encoding of vowel quality, 20 native speakers of American English learning BP completed a perceptual categorization, a lexical decision, and an orthographic knowledge task. Learners perceived the difference between the vowel quality contrasts but confused the vowels lexically. The learner group more easily rejected nonwords created from real words carrying accent marks than nonwords based on words without accents. However, when separating learners into low- and high-awareness groups, the effect remained only for the high-awareness group. The results suggest that orthographic transparency can result in more precise phonolexical encoding, but only for those who are orthographically aware.
Abstract As language assessment increasingly recognizes interaction as socially co‐constructed, interactional competence (IC) has emerged as a central construct for understanding learners’ ability to manage communication across social and cultural contexts. At the same time, digitally mediated communication environments and artificial intelligence (AI)‐powered conversational agents are transforming both interaction itself and the ways in which it can be assessed. These technologies also create new opportunities for second language research more broadly by facilitating data collection from geographically dispersed and historically underrepresented learner populations. This introduction reviews key challenges in IC assessment, including tensions among construct validity, interactional authenticity, reliability, and practicality, and discusses how digital technologies offer new opportunities for scalable, standardized, and pedagogically meaningful assessment. It synthesizes the six empirical and conceptual studies and one commentary included in the special issue and concludes by outlining future directions for research, including expanding linguistic and sociocultural diversity, integrating discourse analytic approaches, reconceptualizing IC for AI‐mediated interaction, and exploring automated scoring methods.
Interactional competence (IC) is a core component of oral proficiency; however, opportunities to practice and develop IC in second language (L2) classrooms are often limited. Generative artificial intelligence chatbots provide easily accessible avenues for communicative practice. Employing a quasiexperimental design, this study compared chatbot interactions with face-to-face peer interactions to investigate the potential of both modes for eliciting and developing English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' IC. The participants were 88 Chinese college EFL learners: 48 in the chatbot group and 40 in the peer group. Learners' IC performance was evaluated through a pretest and a posttest in conjunction with conversation analysis. Findings revealed that both groups improved their IC, but the peer group excelled in interactive listening. Further questionnaire and interview data indicated learners' concerns about the authenticity of chatbot interactions; yet they appreciated the chatbot's flexibility and anxiety-reducing effect. They also expressed a willingness for long-term engagement.
Do immersion and nonimmersion learners' English grammaticality judgment test (GJT) scores reflect the same underlying processes in language learning? Drawing on data from Chen and Hartshorne's (2021) study, we argue that they do not. Using generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs), we found that age of onset was the strongest predictor of GJT performance among immersion learners, whereas linguistic distance was the most influential variable for nonimmersion learners. Moreover, the nonlinear effects of age of onset, length of experience, education, and linguistic distance differed substantially between the two groups. Female learners consistently outperformed male learners across both contexts. Similarly, learners residing in an English-speaking environment scored higher on the GJT than those living in non-English-speaking countries.
Abstract This editorial introduces an update to the Language Learning Methods Showcase Article (MSA) type. Specifically, the MSA type now welcomes submissions that describe and demonstrate the utility of data resources as well as empirical studies that investigate the validity of new or existing instruments and analytical techniques. A rationale for these changes is given, and some commentary on criteria for evaluating submissions of articles focused on data resources and empirical validation studies is provided.
This study explores the potential of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) as an alternative to human interlocutors for assessing interactional competence (IC) in a second language (L2). Thirty L2 English speakers completed a 6-item roleplay task designed to elicit refusals of requests, invitations, and offers, interacting with both a native-speaking human interlocutor and GenAI (ChatGPT-4o) 1 week apart. Four trained raters evaluated the audio-recorded performances over a 2-week period following an analytic, data-driven rubric of IC comprising eight dimensions. Linear mixed-effects models were used to compare IC scores across the two interlocutor conditions. Rater feedback collected through daily questionnaires was analyzed to contextualize rating outcomes. Results indicate that GenAI can serve as a viable alternative to human interlocutors for eliciting IC evidence on the sequential organization of refusals as disaffiliative deviations from acceptance in response to invitations, offers, and requests, though human interlocutors elicited richer IC features indicative of conversational engagement.
Digital technologies offer innovative approaches to assessing interactional competence (IC) by simulating authentic communication scenarios; yet they require redefined constructs to address technology-mediated interaction dynamics. This study develops and validates an IC rating scale for the computer-based paired discussion tasks in College English Test-Spoken English Test Band 4. Using a multiphase mixed-methods design, the study derived scale categories from theoretical models and content analysis of speech samples (N = 60). These categories were refined through expert workshops (N = 4), followed by a Rasch calibration of descriptor difficulty based on rater responses (N = 315). Finally, raters (N = 7) conducted trial ratings of the speech samples, after which interviews were conducted to examine the scale's practical application and its effectiveness in assessing IC performance. The findings provide a contextually grounded conceptualization of IC and establish a methodological framework for developing IC scales in technology-mediated interaction contexts.
The present study investigated learning new meanings of known words from reading, following Hulme et al.'s (2018) study. English speakers read four short stories containing 16 critical words (i.e., familiar word forms assigned invented secondary meanings). Contextual exposure to the critical words was manipulated within participants and items as low (two and four occurrences) or high (six and eight occurrences). Cued meaning and form recall posttests assessed the mapping of new meanings onto existing word forms; a semantic relatedness judgment task under time pressure measured new meaning integration. High exposure resulted in greater meaning recall than low exposure immediately after learning and one week later. Slower relatedness judgments involving original meanings of the critical words, immediately after learning, indexed semantic competition from the weakly learned new meanings. These findings show initial integration of new meanings into learners' lexical semantic networks can occur without deliberate study or retrieval practice.
Whereas L2 fluency research has focused on monologic speech, interactional fluency (IF), particularly during turn transitions, remains underexplored. This study investigates how turn-managing gestures (TMGs) contribute to L2 IF, drawing on 60 dyadic interactions from Taiwanese learners in the International Corpus Network of Asian Learners of English (ICNALE). Gesture use across proficiency levels was analyzed in relation to gaps, overlaps, and no-gap-no-overlap transitions. Results reveal that high-proficiency speakers used TMGs more often, particularly with no-gap-no-overlap transitions, supporting smoother turns. Gesture frequency correlated with overlaps at turn onsets across all levels, indicating a signaling role. At turn ends, only high-proficiency speakers showed strong TMG correlations with smooth transitions, and low-proficiency learners used gestures to reduce gaps. These findings demonstrate that L2 speakers use gestural cues to manage turn transitions, highlighting the critical role of TMGs in shaping IF and offering a novel multimodal perspective by integrating speech and gesture analyses.
Little research has explored how language dominance may affect the development and ultimate attainment of morphosyntax in a situation of widespread and social bilingualism, where exposure to both languages starts early on and can be sustained over time. This study investigates the development of three nonpersonal clitics that have received little attention by empirical research cross-linguistically, namely the partitive and two different oblique clitics. We investigated whether and how the development and ultimate attainment of these clitics in Catalan were modulated by language dominance. To this end, we tested child (ages 4-9) and adult Catalan-Spanish bilinguals with different degrees of language dominance. Our findings show robust differences among language dominance groups in the development and attainment of Catalan nonpersonal clitics. Specifically, despite continuous and widespread bilingualism, clitics emerge later in non-Catalan-dominant bilinguals, and later development does not lead to convergence with Catalan-dominant bilinguals, even in adulthood.
This study investigated which type of Mandarin Chinese relative clause (RC)-subject-extracted relative clause (SRC) or object-extracted relative clause (ORC)-imposes greater processing demands on second language (L2) learners' production. Sixty-two native (L1) Mandarin speakers and 72 L1 Korean learners of Mandarin participated in a picture description task. Production accuracy, latency, and duration were analyzed as indicators of different stages in sentence production. The results revealed an SRC advantage in both L1 and L2 production latency, but a contradictory ORC advantage in L2 production accuracy and duration. Furthermore, individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) and L2 proficiency modulated the magnitude of subject-object asymmetry; this effect was more pronounced among participants with lower WMC and those with lower L2 proficiency. We propose a comprehensive perspective for examining subject-object asymmetry in Mandarin RCs, moving beyond a narrow focus on the dichotomy of an SRC versus ORC advantage.
This study investigated whether mind wandering's frequency differs between paper-based and mobile-assisted L2 reading, a current gap in language-learning literature. It further explored how reading medium influences mind wandering's occurrence by examining the mediating role of metacognitive self-regulation and the moderating role of L2 proficiency. 225 first-year college students learning English as a L2 participated. The study used reading comprehension tests, thought probes, and questionnaire surveys. Participants also self-reported episodes of mind wandering whenever they noticed them during L2 reading. Mixed-design ANOVAs suggested mobile-assisted reading elicited more mind wandering than paper-based reading, but this effect was only observed in the probe-caught condition and when following paper-based reading. A two-condition, within-participant mediation analysis suggested students' metacognitive self-regulation mediated reading media's effect on mind wandering. A moderated mediation analysis revealed students' L2 proficiency moderated this mediation. These findings indicate reading medium and individual differences' interaction shape learners' attentional state during L2 reading.
Selective admissions at universities in the United Kingdom aim to ensure a baseline language competence, yet, despite persistent achievement disparities across linguistic backgrounds, systematic comparisons of linguistic skills underpinning academic success remain rare. This study compared English proficiency among three groups of first-year undergraduates: British (n = 60), European (n = 59), and Chinese (n = 58). Two proficiency skills-reading comprehension and text summarization-were assessed alongside 11 theoretically motivated component measures. Although previously reported gaps between British and Chinese students were replicated, European students performed comparably to British students on several measures, reflecting English proficiency variation across L2 groups consistent with sector-level patterns of academic outcomes. Group differences in reading and writing were explained by underlying component skills, particularly vocabulary knowledge and processing efficiency. Findings carry theoretical and policy implications, highlighting the need for targeted linguistic support to address persistent group disparities in academic outcomes within increasingly diverse university settings.
Measurement of interactional competence (IC) has attracted increasing interest in language assessment research. One key question is whether proficiency sufficiently accounts for IC, making separate IC assessment unnecessary. This study examines the IC-proficiency relationship using a test that assesses Chinese speakers' ability to manage multiplex social roles in digital communication. A total of 103 second-language (L2) and first-language (L1) Chinese speakers completed a nine-item roleplay IC test on a smartphone application. Using linguistic laypersons' indigenous criteria, we observed a disconnect between proficiency and IC through quantitative and qualitative analyses. Findings also indicate that IC is not stable across social settings, roles, and digital modes, with L1 speakers showing greater disparity in IC performance than L2 speakers. We discuss implications for the assessment and teaching of IC in digital communication with rich social, cultural, and relational cues. We also suggest ways forward in reconceptualizing IC in the artificial intelligence (AI) era.
In research on referring expressions (REs), multiple explanations have been proposed for second language (L2) overexplicitness-the phenomenon of intermediate-to-advanced learners producing fuller REs than pragmatically required. However, these explanations have rarely been empirically tested. This study examined the cognitive load hypothesis and its interaction with the error avoidance and clarity hypotheses using a mixed-model quasi-experimental design. Sixty-nine Chinese learners were assigned to either a language-focused or content-focused group and completed three retellings of one narrative. Cognitive load was manipulated through task repetition and content familiarity, whereas the avoidance and clarity hypotheses were operationalized via task instructions targeting accuracy and communicative clarity, respectively. Results show that task repetition significantly reduced overexplicitness, largely supporting the cognitive load hypothesis. In contrast, no significant effects were observed for the other hypotheses, suggesting overexplicitness was not driven by deliberate strategies of avoidance or hyperclarity. These findings indicate effective means of fostering pragmatically appropriate referential choices.
This study examined the effects of emotional valence (positive, negative, neutral) of English texts and sleep consolidation on the incidental acquisition of second language (L2) vocabulary in Chinese-English bilinguals. Each participant was exposed to three English texts with different emotional valences, each containing three English pseudowords. These pseudowords were also embedded into low-constraint sentences used for the posttest. Eye-tracking technology was utilized to monitor participants' reading patterns during text comprehension and posttest sentence reading. Two experiments were conducted. The interval between the two posttests was 24 hours in Experiment 1 and 12 hours in Experiment 2 (with a wake control group). The results revealed that emotional texts and sleep condition facilitated lexical consolidation, with sleep delaying early lexical access but reducing cognitive demands involved in late-stage integration. These findings suggested that reading emotional texts and adequate sleep were conducive to incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition.
Semantic fluency, the ability to retrieve words within a category, relies on lexical knowledge, semantic memory and executive control mechanisms. A richer, interconnected semantic memory and optimal executive control, as seen in creative individuals, enhance fluency through broad associative searches and quicker access to remote concepts. However, the extent to which this creativity-related advantage in the first language (L1) extends to second language (L2) remains largely unexplored. Using a combination of inferential analyses, we examined how productive vocabulary knowledge and creativity relate to L2 semantic fluency in a sample of 60 Spanish 12th-grade English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. L2 semantic fluency was measured using two semantic fluency tasks. Findings suggest that vocabulary provides the necessary basis for creativity to operate and that although creativity enhances L2 semantic fluency in semantically broad domains, verbal flexibility serves a compensatory function in more constrained categories. Further analyses of lexical production patterns and retrieval strategies lent support to these findings.
By manipulating lexical contextual emotion (positive vs. neutral vs.negative) and reading context (reading the same text repeatedly vs. reading different texts), this study examined whether Chinese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) could acquire lexical contextual emotion (i.e., semantic prosody) associated with novel pseudowords. The study involved a reading-and-learning session followed by immediate and delayed posttests designed to investigate such acquisition and its effects on novel word learning across reading contexts. Results of mixed-effects modeling indicate that (a) EFL learners were able to acquire lexical contextual emotion and maintain it over time, (b) positive contextual emotion facilitated better word learning than neutral and negative contextual emotions, (c) reading context had a significant effect on word meaning recall but not on contextual emotion acquisition, and (d) language proficiency exerted a modulating effect. Divergences from prior findings are addressed, and theoretical and pedagogical implications are discussed.
This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study investigated how facial cues influence second language (L2) shadowing among 42 Japanese learners of English. Participants completed four conditions that varied by task type (listening vs. shadowing) and visual input (face vs. mosaic). Behaviorally, shadowing reproduction accuracy was higher when the speaker's face was visible. Neuroimaging revealed greater activation in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), right ventral pallidum, and left hippocampus during shadowing in the Face condition, reflecting enhanced audiovisual integration, engagement, and memory-related processing. Learners with higher oral proficiency exhibited increased activation in speech-integration areas, such as the posterior superior temporal gyrus, and those with higher listening proficiency showed reduced cerebellar engagement, suggesting proficiency-dependent neural strategies for integrating facial cues during shadowing. These findings support embodied, multisensory, and socially grounded accounts of L2 learning, emphasizing the pedagogical importance of visible facial cues. Incorporating face-based shadowing into L2 learning may help bridge perception and production and prepare learners for interaction-oriented communication.
This study examines the potential effects of language stays abroad, specifically student exchanges and language courses, on the foreign language proficiency of lower secondary students, in particular on their listening and reading comprehension. Using data from a nationwide, large-scale study on German high school students (academic school track) in Year 9, we focused on students who learned either English (n = 13,073) or French (n = 3,261) as their first foreign language. To account for selectivity bias, we estimated the effects of student exchanges and language courses on the receptive language skills by employing propensity score matching, controlling for a comprehensive set of covariates. Our results indicate that student exchanges significantly enhance foreign language proficiency in both languages, especially in listening comprehension. The effects were more pronounced for French learners than for English learners. No significant results were found for language courses.
