ABSTRACT This study aims to investigate the effects of sandblasting combined with plasma modification on surface adhesive properties of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and shear bond strength (SBS) between PEEK and resin cements. PEEK specimens were divided into eight groups ( n = 30) via sandblasting, nitrogen, and argon plasma treatments, as well as their combinations. Surface characteristics were characterized via water contact angle, roughness, and SEM. After bonding with Variolink resin cement, specimens underwent 5000 or 10,000 thermal cycles (5°C–55°C), followed by SBS measurement with a universal tester and stereomicroscopic failure mode evaluation. All plasma treatments improved surface hydrophilicity. Sandblasting increased water contact angle, which was significantly reversed by subsequent plasma treatments. Sandblasting and/or plasma treatments significantly increased surface roughness of PEEK. SEM observations revealed that nitrogen and nitrogen‐argon mixed plasma yielded relatively regular surface morphology with abundant nanoscale granular deposits, whereas sandblasting resulted in irregular folds and flocculent attachment. Combined treatment refined surface contours and reduced surface attachments. Sandblasting and/or plasma treatments significantly raised SBS, with sandblasting plus nitrogen plasma resulting in the maximum value. Moreover, the control group predominantly exhibited adhesive failure. After sandblasting or plasma modification, the proportion of adhesive failure decreased while that of mixed failure increased. Within treatment groups, thermal cycling had little influence on SBS and slightly promoted adhesive failure. Overall, sandblasting, nitrogen plasma, and argon plasma treatments, alone or in combination, modify PEEK surface characteristics and markedly enhance the SBS between PEEK and Variolink resin cement. Combined sandblasting and nitrogen plasma treatment produced the optimal adhesive properties.
ABSTRACT The mechanical recycling of glass fiber reinforced polymer composites has gained increasing attention due to environmental and economic considerations. This study systematically investigates the evolution of mechanical properties and establishes predictive models for off‐axis tensile behavior of 30 wt% glass fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (GF/PA6) composites subjected to up to three injection molding recycling cycles. The fiber volume fraction remained relatively stable (15.95%–16.12%), while the average fiber length decreased from 0.294 mm to 0.179 mm (39.1% reduction) after three recycling cycles. The directly measured interfacial shear modulus decreased from 2.41 GPa to 1.88 GPa (22.0% reduction), while the interfacial shear strength inversely fitted from the Kelly–Tyson model showed a corresponding decreasing trend from 54.19 MPa to 42.95 MPa. An orthotropic elasticity model was employed to predict off‐axis tensile moduli, achieving prediction errors primarily between 3.13% and 6.80% with an average error of 4.85%. The modified Kelly–Tyson model and Hoffman criterion were compared for off‐axis tensile strength prediction. The Hoffman criterion demonstrated superior accuracy with prediction errors ranging from 0.24% to 5.36%, outperforming the modified Kelly–Tyson model (3.22%–13.12% error). The Hoffman criterion effectively captures the tension‐compression asymmetry and coupled stress states characteristic of off‐axis loading conditions. These findings provide a quantitative framework for evaluating recycled GF/PA6 composites in engineering applications and establish reliable predictive tools for assessing material performance across arbitrary off‐axis angles.
ABSTRACT The development of biodegradable mulch films is critical to advancing sustainable agricultural practices. This study presents novel bioplastic films derived from poly (butylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate) (PBAT) and tamarind kernel powder (TKP) with a plasticizer (5 wt%), fabricated via blown‐film extrusion. TKP is rich in xyloglucan, a structurally complex hemi‐cellulosic polysaccharide that imparts inherent film‐forming ability and significantly enhances the physicochemical and functional properties of the developed films. FTIR and SEM analyses confirmed the compatibility and morphological integration between the hydrophilic TKP and the semi‐aromatic PBAT matrix. Mechanical testing revealed that TKP incorporation enhanced the tensile modulus. The thermal stability of PBAT‐based films improved with TKP incorporation, accompanied by a reduction in melt flow index, indicating increased melt viscosity arising from enhanced intermolecular interactions and restricted chain mobility within the biopolymer matrix. The PBAT/TKP30 films exhibited elevated antioxidant activity (26.049 ± 0.056), attributed to TKP's polyphenolic content. A mulching study revealed that degradation occurred within 65 days, accompanied by increased macronutrient levels due to TKP's inherent protein and mineral content. These findings underscore the multifunctional potential of PBAT/TKP films as effective, carbohydrate‐based mulch materials, offering dual benefits of biodegradability and soil enrichment.
ABSTRACT Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a commercially important biodegradable polymer, yet its inherent brittleness and poor compatibility with flexible biodegradable polyesters limit its application in mechanically demanding products. In this study, the interfacial compatibilization of immiscible PLA/poly(butylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate) (PBAT) blends was achieved using a novel castor oil‐based biobased polyol (COP) synthesized via transesterification followed by esterification with itaconic acid. Reactive melt extrusion was employed, with dicumyl peroxide (DCP) used as a radical initiator to promote interfacial grafting. The effects of COP content and peroxide activation on mechanical performance, melt rheology, crystallization behavior, and thermal stability were systematically investigated using tensile testing, dynamic rheology, X‐ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis. The results show that COP acts as an effective amphiphilic compatibilizer, improving interfacial adhesion and stress transfer between PLA and PBAT phases. In the presence of low peroxide loading, COP is further stabilized at the interface through radical‐mediated grafting, leading to enhanced melt elasticity, refined crystalline structure, and a balanced improvement in strength and ductility. An optimum formulation containing 2.5 phr COP and 0.2 phr DCP was identified, beyond which interfacial saturation and partial softening reduced performance. Overall, this study demonstrates an effective and sustainable compatibilization strategy for PLA/PBAT blends using a renewable, multifunctional polyol, providing insights into structure–property relationships while offering a viable pathway toward high‐performance biodegradable materials for packaging and additive manufacturing applications.
ABSTRACT Corneal epithelial injuries require temporary matrices that combine structural support, ocular‐surface compatibility, and local anti‐inflammatory activity. We developed an ultrathin bilayer scaffold comprising decellularized human amniotic membrane (AM) coated with a polycarbonate urethane–silk fibroin emulsion layer (EM) containing 6% betamethasone dipropionate (BD). The construct was evaluated by morphological, spectroscopic, mechanical, qualitative optical, degradation, cytocompatibility, and rabbit corneal injury assessments. Cross‐sectional SEM confirmed integration of the two layers, and incorporation of the EM layer increased tensile strength, elongation at break, and Young's modulus relative to AM alone. In PBS, AM lost more than 60% of its initial dry mass over 25 days, whereas AM/EM and AM/EM + BD showed minimal mass loss. L929 fibroblast cells adhered to the scaffolds and maintained high metabolic activity for up to 7 days. In an ethanol‐assisted epithelial debridement model, AM/EM + BD treatment improved corneal clarity, epithelial organization, and stromal collagen architecture at day 21 and was associated with reduced TNF‐α, TGF‐β1, VEGF, and COL1 expression and increased IL‐10 and MMP9 expression. These findings support the AM/EM + BD scaffold as a mechanically reinforced, cytocompatible platform for local anti‐inflammatory corneal repair. In vitro release studies showed an initial burst followed by prolonged release, with approximately 60% of BD released at 24 h and a plateau of ~70%–72% reached by 96–192 h.
ABSTRACT Neodymium ion‐imprinted polymer (Nd‐IIP) was synthesized by employing the resorcinol‐formaldehyde resin (RF) as a chemically tunable support for the efficient selective recovery of Nd 3+ ions. RF was cyanoethylated to introduce reactive nitrile groups, which were further modified using 3‐(((furan‐2‐ylmethyl)amino)methyl)‐4‐hydroxybenzohydrazide (FUBH) to synthesize RF‐FUB containing phenolic oxygen, secondary amine nitrogen, and furan rings. Nd 3+ ions were coordinated with RF‐FUB via phenolate oxygen and amino nitrogen in the vicinity, followed by Diels–Alder cross‐linking between furan rings of RF‐FUB and maleimide of bis(maleimido) ethane (BMOE) and subsequent template extraction to fabricate a stable recognition site. Synthesis of FUBH, successive chemical modification of the polymer, Nd 3+ coordination, and cross‐linked imprinting network were established by means of FTIR, XPS, solid‐state 13 C NMR, elemental analysis, TGA/DTG, SEM, and BET measurements. Nd‐IIP exhibited more uneven surface texture, larger surface area, and enhanced thermal stability compared with those of NIP. Adsorption exhibited strong dependency on pH, with optimum performance at pH 6. The Langmuir isotherm fitted the equilibrium data very well and estimated a maximum uptake capacity of 321.9 mg g −1 versus 167.2 mg g −1 for NIP, while kinetic data followed the pseudo‐second‐order model. Competitive adsorption and reuse studies confirmed selective, stable, and regenerable Nd 3+ uptake.
ABSTRACT Graphene and inorganic nanoparticles combined to create novel nanomaterials with distinctive properties have garnered a lot of interest. These have kept scientists on their toes and are being used in many different sectors. The Cu‐rGO nanocomposites in a PVP/PCL polymer matrix were created through the solvent casting technique. A biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, PVP/PCL, was chosen for use in this case. The analysis indicated that the Cu‐rGO nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed within the PVP/PCL polymer matrix and possessed the expected elemental composition. Both Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive bacteria were used to assess the antibacterial properties of the nanocomposites. The findings indicated that the nanocomposites had a better effect than pure‐rGO on antibacterial properties. This is probably because copper nanoparticles enhance the inherent antibacterial properties of graphene oxide through continuous release of copper ions. They also checked if the materials were compatible with blood by monitoring hemolysis. The study revealed that all materials had low hemolysis levels and, therefore, were compatible with blood. However, there was some cell survival in each of the samples tested. This may be attributed to the oxidative stress induced by Cu ions. After 3 days, cell survival in the presence of PCuG5 was 68%.
ABSTRACT Epoxy resins are widely used in structural and electronic applications; however, their high coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and intrinsic brittleness limit their reliability under thermal and mechanical stresses. In this study, a multifunctional epoxy composite with a reduced CTE and enhanced mechanical performance was developed using a hierarchically structured hybrid filler composed of aramid nanofibers (ANFs) and boron nitride (BN), followed by dual‐phosphorus‐based surface functionalization with phenylphosphonic acid (PPA) and phosphoric acid (PA). BN incorporation effectively suppressed self‐assembly of the ANFs into dense films, enabling the formation of a well‐dispersed powder‐type hybrid structure. Subsequent PPA and PA functionalization significantly enhanced the interfacial adhesion through hydrogen bonding and π–π interactions, leading to improved stress transfer and restricted polymer chain mobility. Consequently, the epoxy composites exhibited a substantial reduction in the CTE (up to 28%), with a simultaneous improvement in the tensile strength and adhesion performance. The hybrid filler also contributed to enhanced thermal stability and flame retardancy, as evidenced by the reduced peak heat release rate (pHRR) and increased char formation. These findings demonstrate that synergistic hybridization and interfacial engineering are effective strategies for designing mechanically robust low‐CTE epoxy composites for advanced structural and electronic applications.
ABSTRACT This study examines the influence of polymer matrix polarity on dielectric relaxation and alternating‐current conduction in thin silicon–polymer composite films. Two systems containing equal volume fractions of p‐type monocrystalline silicon and polymer were compared: silicon–polyvinylidene fluoride and silicon–polypropylene. Dielectric permittivity, dielectric loss, relaxation behavior, and electrical conductivity were analyzed over broad frequency and temperature ranges. Both composites exhibited relaxation‐type dielectric dispersion and frequency‐dependent conductivity consistent with Jonscher's universal power law. The silicon–polyvinylidene fluoride composite showed higher dielectric permittivity, stronger dielectric loss, and a pronounced relaxation maximum, reflecting enhanced dipolar response and Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars interfacial polarization. In contrast, the silicon–polypropylene composite displayed lower dielectric response, higher activation energies, and stronger temperature dependence of the frequency exponent. These differences indicate that the polar matrix promotes interfacial charge accumulation and localized charge displacement, whereas the non‐polar matrix favors barrier‐controlled hopping transport. Arrhenius analysis confirmed thermally activated conductivity and relaxation processes in both systems. The results demonstrate that polymer polarity governs the balance between polarization and conduction mechanisms in silicon–polymer thin composites and may guide the design of functional dielectric layers, sensor‐related components, and insulation materials. The comparison provides a basis for selecting polymer matrices according to required dielectric performance and charge‐transport characteristics in devices.
ABSTRACT Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and its copolymers combine electromechanical activity with mechanical compliance, making them important matrix materials for flexible piezoelectric devices. Unlike conventional brittle piezoelectric ceramics and single crystals, PVDF‐based composites can maintain stable functional performance during repeated bending, twisting, and stretching, which makes them attractive for wearable electronics and real‐time monitoring. This review examines recent progress in flexible PVDF‐based piezoelectric materials from molecular and interfacial design to device integration. Particular attention is given to the mechanisms by which fillers with different dimensions and surface chemistries promote polar‐phase nucleation and stabilization, and to the roles of interfacial architecture, conductive or ferroelectric network topology, and fabrication method in determining electromechanical coupling. Hybrid transduction strategies that combine piezoelectricity with piezoresistive and triboelectric effects are also discussed in the context of multifunctional sensing, ambient‐energy harvesting, and actuation. By relating material selection and processing to device function, this review identifies the principal trade‐offs among electromechanical performance, flexibility, processability, and long‐term reliability, and outlines directions toward scalable and environmentally responsible flexible piezoelectric systems.
ABSTRACT This study presents a filler‐free approach to enhance the flexibility, impact resistance, and wear performance of pure polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) through melt‐blending with Zn 2+ ‐neutralized ethylene/methacrylic acid (E/MAA) ionomer via extrusion and injection molding. Structural characterization using FTIR and XRD revealed composition‐dependent peak shifts and intensifications, with significant changes occurring from approximately 30 wt% onward. The cryo‐fractured FESEM analysis shows the morphological evolution from a dual‐phase sea–island structure with brittle fracture up to 20 wt% to increased plastic deformation via fibrillation as the Zn‐ionomer content increases. Thermal analysis reveals a gradual decrease in the onset degradation temperature as ionomer content increases, whereas the blends' final decomposition temperature, melting temperature, and glass transition temperature show comparatively less effect. Dynamic mechanical analysis demonstrated enhanced chain mobility reflected by an increased critical strain from 0.73% for neat PPS to 3.57% for the Zn_50 blend. Although the blend exhibited reduced tensile strength and modulus with increasing ionomer loading, the maximum enhancements of approximately 180% in elongation at break, 164% in impact strength, and 135% in wear resistance were achieved at a 50/50 ionomer loading as compared with neat PPS. HR‐TEM analysis of the Zn_30 blend revealed a nanoscale phase‐separated domain, and SAED shows the retained crystalline structure of PPS after melt‐blending. The findings suggest that the improved flexibility, impact, and wear resistance are associated with the composition‐dependent effect of Zn‐ionomer blending, as an effective approach for tailoring the performance of PPS‐based systems for demanding engineering applications.
ABSTRACT The significant environmental impacts of cement production have spurred the need for alternative materials in cement manufacturing. At the same time, the steady increase in associated solid waste streams underscores the importance of reusing and recycling as an initial step in developing sustainable binder materials. This review examines precursor materials, activators, curing conditions, and solid waste utilization for geopolymer production in emerging economies, highlighting opportunities and challenges. It identifies key requirements for sustainable geopolymer development as a viable cement alternative, transforming waste into valuable construction resources. The investigation found that certain waste streams with high concentrations of silica and alumina, including fly ash, metakaolin, blast furnace slag, and palm oil fuel ash, can be effectively combined with an appropriate alkaline activator to produce a more sustainable material that helps reduce carbon emissions. Alkaline treatment of waste releases silica and alumina, enabling the production of strong, durable geopolymer materials comparable to cement concrete. However, widespread adoption, particularly in developing countries, is hindered by inadequate standards, limited raw‐material data, material variability, curing temperature requirements, large‐scale production challenges, and the need for environmentally friendly activators.
ABSTRACT Erosion is a major degradation mechanism affecting components exposed to solid particle impingement, cavitation, slurry flow, rain impact, wind‐blown sand, and fluid turbulence. Industries including aerospace, marine, offshore oil and gas, wind energy, transportation, and power generation experience significant economic losses due to erosion‐induced material damage. Polyurethane (PU) coatings have emerged as attractive anti‐erosion materials because of their elasticity, toughness, adhesion, and impact resistance. However, conventional PU coatings often exhibit insufficient long‐term durability under severe erosive conditions. Recent advances in nanotechnology have enabled the development of PU nanocomposite coatings incorporating silica, graphene, graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nanoclays, MXenes, metal oxides, and hybrid nanoparticles to enhance erosion resistance. These nanoparticles improve energy dissipation, crack deflection, hardness, interfacial adhesion, and barrier performance. Recent studies further demonstrate multifunctional anti‐erosion coatings combining corrosion protection, self‐healing capability, de‐icing performance, and environmental resistance. This review summarizes the latest developments in nanoparticle‐containing PU coatings for anti‐erosion applications, emphasizing nanoparticle selection, fabrication methods, erosion mechanisms, performance enhancement strategies, industrial applications, challenges, and future research directions. Recent advances suggest that graphene‐based nanofillers, MXenes, functionalized silica nanoparticles, and hybrid nanostructures will play key roles in next‐generation anti‐erosion PU coatings.
ABSTRACT Magnetic nanostructures have attracted considerable attention due to their potential applications in targeted drug delivery, cancer therapy, and biomedical imaging. In this study, multifunctional magnetic nanowire systems were developed by coating Fe 3 O 4 nanowires with a synthesized gallic acid (GA)‐modified thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix to enhance drug loading capacity, stability, and biocompatibility. FTIR and 1 H NMR analyses confirmed the presence of characteristic functional groups corresponding to gallic acid and TPU within the synthesized copolymer structure. TEM analysis of nanoparticle formulations revealed that the TPU‐GA3 formulation, containing the highest GA content, exhibited superior morphological characteristics with an average particle size of 172 ± 5.2 nm. Subsequent DLS measurements demonstrated that the particle size of TPU‐GA3 coated Fe 3 O 4 nanowires increased with increasing Fe 3 O 4 nanowire concentration, reaching 172 ± 1.2, 229 ± 2.3, and 576 ± 4.5 nm for 2.5Fe 3 O 4 NPs‐TPU‐GA3, 10Fe 3 O 4 NPs‐TPU‐GA3, and 30Fe 3 O 4 NPs‐TPU‐GA3, respectively. The characterization results demonstrated that the synthesized pristine Fe 3 O 4 and TPU‐GA3‐MNWs possessed diameters of approximately 5–10 nm and lengths ranging from 50 to 200 nm. Magnetic characterization using vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) revealed that the magnetic behavior strongly depended on Fe 3 O 4 loading. Among the tested formulations, 10Fe 3 O 4 ‐TPU‐GA3 nanowires exhibited the most balanced magnetic response with a coercivity of 35.6 Oe and a saturation magnetization of 0.0059 emu g −1 . Overall, the developed polymer‐engineered magnetic nanowire platform demonstrates suitable physicochemical and magnetic properties, indicating its potential for magnetically guided drug delivery and other biomedical applications.
ABSTRACT Polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and hydroxyapatite (HA) biocomposites are widely investigated as biodegradable scaffolds for bone tissue engineering because they combine mechanical support, tunable degradation, and osteoconductive functionality. This critical review examines how material composition and fabrication routes, including solvent casting, freeze‐drying, melt processing, electrospinning, and additive manufacturing, govern pore architecture, polymer phase morphology, HA dispersion, and interfacial interactions, thereby determining mechanical performance, degradation behavior, and biological function. PLA primarily provides stiffness, PCL improves ductility and toughness, while HA enhances osteoconductivity and may reinforce the polymer matrix when uniformly dispersed. Across the reviewed studies, scaffold performance varied substantially because of differences in composition, processing conditions, porosity, and mechanical testing configurations. However, inconsistent testing protocols, incomplete mechanical data reporting, and limited evaluation of fatigue and creep behavior remain major barriers to direct comparison and clinical translation. Future research should integrate standardized mechanical testing, long‐term degradation–mechanics assessment, cyclic loading evaluation, and microstructural optimization to support the development of mechanically reliable PLA/PCL/HA scaffolds for bone repair.
ABSTRACT Polymer composites containing quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) are highly effective antimicrobial materials used in various applications due to their potent ability to disrupt microbial cell membranes, leading to cell death. QAS is particularly valued in healthcare, food packaging, textiles, and water treatment, where microbial contamination is a major concern. Integrability into polymers enables the development of materials that not only have durable, flexible properties but also long‐lasting antimicrobial effects. The synthesis of QAS‐polymer composites (QAS‐PCs) is typically achieved either by covalently bonding QAS to the polymer backbone or by non‐covalently bonding QAS into the polymer matrix. Covalent bonding, often achieved through copolymerization with QAS monomers, forms a strong attachment that prevents leaching, thereby ensuring prolonged antimicrobial activity. The review examines the role of structural parameters, such as alkyl chain length, molecular architecture, and QAS concentration, in determining antimicrobial efficacy and biocompatibility. The antimicrobial mechanisms are systematically described, emphasizing electrostatic interactions between cationic QAS groups and negatively charged microbial cell membranes, membrane disruption, leakage of intracellular constituents, dissipation of membrane potential, and subsequent cell death. Current and emerging applications of QAS‐PCs in healthcare, food packaging, water purification, and textiles are also summarized. Finally, the review discusses existing challenges and outlines future research directions to develop safer, more sustainable, and high‐performance antimicrobial polymer composites. This review provides valuable insights into the rational design and practical implementation of QAS‐PCs for next‐generation antimicrobial technologies.
ABSTRACT Wound healing is a complex physiological process involving coordinated interactions among cells, cytokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix components. Recent advances in wound care, including bioengineered skin substitutes, nanotechnology‐based dressings, and growth factor‐loaded biomaterials, have enhanced treatment outcomes. Among these, electrospun nanofibers have emerged as promising wound dressing materials due to their extracellular matrix‐mimicking, high surface‐area‐to‐volume ratio, and versatile drug‐loading capabilities. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments in electrospun nanofiber technology for wound management, highlighting fabrication methods, electrospinning parameters, and the therapeutic potential of incorporated bioactive agents. Relevant literature was collected from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar using keywords such as “wound healing,” “electrospun nanofibers,” “antimicrobial,” “bioactive wound dressing,” and “electrospinning parameters.” The review discusses current challenges in wound care and examines advances in electrospun nanofiber‐based dressings containing antimicrobial and bioactive compounds. Emphasis is placed on electrospinning parameters that influence nanofiber morphology and functionality. The therapeutic benefits of these systems, including controlled drug delivery, antimicrobial activity, anti‐inflammatory effects, and enhanced tissue regeneration, are critically evaluated. Electrospun nanofibers represent a promising platform for advanced wound therapy. Their biomimetic structure and multifunctional properties offer significant advantages, although translational, manufacturing, and regulatory challenges must be addressed for successful clinical implementation.
ABSTRACT Persistent petroleum‐derived plastics have presented environmental problems, and this has amplified the world's interest in biodegradable and renewable alternatives. Bioplastic nanoparticles, as a novel class of materials with sustainability and improved performance, are among them. This review presents the main categories of bioplastics derived from natural, microbial, and chemically modified sources, highlighting their structural features and physicochemical properties. Special attention is paid to the role of nanotechnology in overcoming the drawbacks generally associated with traditional bioplastics, such as low mechanical strength, inadequate thermal stability, and barrier performance. Different fabrication strategies such as top‐down, bottom‐up, and green synthesis approaches and their impact on size, morphology, and functionality of nanoparticles are discussed. Moreover, the review also includes surface engineering and functionalization techniques that provide better stability, targeting, and response to external stimuli. The study discusses the degradability of bioplastics in composting, soil, and aqueous environment along with the processes involved in making bioplastics useful for lab and industrial scale manufacture. Moreover, the review also considers the fate of residual bioplastics under environmental conditions in which bioplastics may not completely degrade, pointing out the possible risks from ecotoxicology and drawbacks of biodegradable claims under natural environmental conditions. Specific focus is placed on issues related to the translation of technology into clinical and industrial setting. In addition, the increasing applications of bioplastic nanoparticles in drug delivery, gene therapy, vaccine systems, food packaging, agriculture, and environmental remediation are reviewed critically. While significant progress has been achieved, scalability, economic feasibility, safety assessment, and regulatory compliance still pose challenges to large‐scale implementation. Emerging developments in synthetic biology, artificial intelligence‐assisted formulation design, and evolving regulatory frameworks are discussed as key factors expected to influence the future advancement and commercialization of nanoengineered bioplastic systems. This review summarizes the paradigm shifting impact of nanoengineered bioplastics on sustainable material science and discusses future prospects for their safe and effective implementation in a variety of industrial sectors.
ABSTRACT This review provides a critical overview of research on fully bio‐based benzoxazines over the period 2015–2025. A bibliometric analysis based on the Web of Science database is used to map how the field has evolved and to identify the renewable building blocks that have been most widely adopted. The objective of this study is to discuss the utilization of various bio‐based phenols—including cardanol, vanillin, eugenol, guaiacol, diphenolic acid, ferulic acid, thymol, and chavicol—and amines—such as furfurylamine, stearylamine, and dehydroabietylamine—as building blocks for this emerging class of sustainable thermosets. Furthermore, the study examines the aldehydes proposed as replacements for formaldehydes, in particular, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and glyoxal, and quantifies the extent to which they have actually been taken up in benzoxazine synthesis. A comparative risk analysis based on European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classifications is included to evaluate the hazard profiles of aldehyde precursors currently employed, highlighting the need for safer and more sustainable alternatives. The challenges and opportunities associated with the use of different bio‐based feedstocks are discussed, along with recent developments in synthetic methodologies—including the use of greener solvents, solvent‐free processes, and alternative energy sources such as microwave‐assisted synthesis. The bibliometric analysis shows that the way this literature is retrieved determines what is found. Searching the self‐declared term “fully bio‐based” returns 82 publications for 2015–2025 and suggests a field in decline after 2019, whereas retrieval based on the precursors actually employed—a renewable phenol combined with a renewable amine—returns 140 publications and reveals sustained growth, from 2 publications in 2015 to 22 in 2025, an increase in share from 0.9% to 5.7% of all benzoxazine output. Within this corpus, the substitution of petrochemical precursors has advanced very unevenly: furfurylamine overtook aniline as the most frequently reported amine in 2021 and had nearly doubled it by 2025, while on the aldehyde side paraformaldehyde use grew by 150% over the same period, and glyoxal and hydroxymethylfurfural together account for 4 of 520 aldehyde occurrences (0.8%). The formaldehyde‐free transition has therefore been proposed but not adopted, and this gap between the sustainability rationale and synthetic practice is the central finding of this review.
ABSTRACT Environmental pollution caused by industrialization and urbanization has led to the uncontrolled release of hazardous contaminants, becoming a major global concern and prompting the development of efficient, sustainable, and eco‐friendly remediation technologies. Among various advanced materials, supramolecular hydrogels (SHGs) have emerged as highly promising platforms for environmental remediation due to their unique physicochemical properties, including high water‐absorption capacity, biodegradability, tunable porous structures, stimulus responsiveness, self‐healing property, and ease of functionalization. In this review, we comprehensively discuss the fundamental mechanism underlying SHG formation. Particular emphasis has been placed on nucleoside‐derived SHGs owing to their remarkable self‐assembly characteristics, high adsorption efficiency, and tunable structural properties. The review also highlights recent advances in SHGs for the removal of environmental pollutants, including heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, and other persistent contaminants. The advantages of SHGs over conventional environmental remediation materials have also been discussed with respect to sustainability, regeneration, selectivity, and multifunctionality.
