A mouse lymph node develops inside of five lymph sacs in the trunk. However, there are uninvestigated, numerous peripheral nodes. We chose histological sections from 38 human fetuses at approximately 8-31 weeks of gestational age (36 to 260 mm of crown-rump length). Three sites of the extremity and seven sites of the trunk were examined. Lymphocyte aggregations developed within the jugular, para-aortic and iliac lymph sacs by 10 weeks. The aggregation lost lymph endothelia at the lumen side and, in the external side, it was attached to the surrounding mesenchymal tissue. Shortly thereafter, in place of the sac endothelia, abundant lymph vessels (LVs) surrounded the aggregation. In the posterior intercostal space, two to seven LVs fused to build a small sac-like structure and, within it, a lymphocyte aggregation developed by 12 weeks and maintained a contact to the surrounding mesenchymal tissue. The same manner was seen in the inguinal, popliteal and cubital regions. In the jejunal mesentery, LVs drastically increased in thickness at 9-11 weeks and, shortly thereafter, they fused to build a very long sac-like structure. However, in the pulmonary hilum at 9-10 weeks, LVs did not fuse together but simply thickened. Thus, keeping a wide mesenchymal connection, a lymphocyte aggregation protruded into a single LV. Being independent of the lymph sac, lymphocytes aggregated in the mesenchymal tissue adjacent to peripheral LVs, followed by its protrusion into a sac-like structure that was usually built by fusion of multiple LVs or a thickened LV.
The circumaortic left renal vein (CLRV) is a critical retroperitoneal vascular variant. Current classification systems frequently omit possible morphologies. This study aims to delineate intricate CLRV patterns and propose a preliminary classification framework. Contrast-enhanced abdominal computed tomography (CT) scans of 380 adult patients (199 males and 181 females, with a mean age of 63.8±15.1 years) were retrospectively evaluated using multiplanar and three-dimensional volume-rendered reconstructions. CLRV variants were categorized into four groups: Type A (bifurcation), Type B (independent double veins), Type C (single interconnection close to the hilum), and Type D (double interconnection). Seventeen CLRV cases were identified, demonstrating a prevalence of 4.5% (10 females, 7 males). Type A was observed in 8 cases (2.1%), Type B in 2 cases (0.5%), Type C in 6 cases (1.6%), and Type D in 1 case (0.3%). The unique Type D configuration featured a double anastomosis with a renal artery passing between the interconnections. A statistically significant association was found between the morphological type and vertebral span (P=0.002), where interconnected variants (Types C and D) exhibited a significantly narrower span (0.9±0.1 vertebrae) than non-interconnected types (1.8±0.8 vertebrae); however, this finding must be interpreted cautiously due to the small subgroup sizes. This novel classification system successfully bridges a literature gap by accounting for complex configurations, offering an exploratory anatomical map to enhance safety during retroperitoneal surgeries and renal transplantations.
The use of android phones is alarmingly increasing among the late juvenile and adolescent population. The infertility results from the detrimental effects of cell phone electromagnetic radiation (EMR) on spermatogenesis. This study aims to evaluate the protective effect of ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves (MOL) in Wistar rat's testis against EMR from a 4G cell phone. Five sets of four-week-old male Wistar rats were created. Control group (n=3) with no cell phone; Sham group (n=3) with cell phone in switched-off mode; MOL-1 group (n=6) received 200 mg of ethanol extract of MOL per kg body weight per month. R1 group (n=6) exposed to 4G cell phone EMR for 96 minutes/day/one month; R1+MOL group (n=6) treated with MOL extract while exposed to EMR for one month. After the trial period, the rats were anesthetized and the testes were procured via trans-abdominal incision. The testes underwent routine histological processes for H&E staining. Histomorphometric analysis; quantitative evaluation of germ cells, Leydig cells, and seminiferous tubules; luminal and basal sperm head retention; Johnsen's biopsy score was done using H&E-stained slides. The Leydig cell count, the height of germinal epithelium, and the number of germ cells were significantly decreased in the R1 group (P<0.04). However, those variables were shielded from the EMR by MOL extract in the R1+MOL group (P<0.04). The ethanolic extract of MOL could safeguard the testis against the 4G cell phone EMR in young Wistar rats.
Exposure to acute hypoxic environments is associated with several ocular disorders, including high-altitude retinopathy (HAR), optic disc edema, retinal hemorrhage, and temporary vision loss. These alterations arise primarily from hypobaric hypoxia and impaired vascular autoregulation. HAR, in particular, is a key indicator of neurovascular dysfunction during systemic hypoxia, affecting retinal ganglion cells-the main output neurons of the retina-as well as the visual cortex, both of which are highly vulnerable to oxygen deprivation. In this study, we investigated the potential protective role of dexamethasone pretreatment against acute intermittent hypobaric hypoxia-induced cellular damage in the retina and primary visual cortex using a rat model of simulated high-altitude exposure. Hypoxic injury was induced in a hypobaric chamber (FiO2=16.6%, pO2=61 mmHg) for 6 hours during 3 consecutive days. Animals in the pretreated group received intraperitoneal injections of dexamethasone (1 mg/kg) once daily for three consecutive days before each hypoxic exposure session. Following hypoxia, untreated rats exhibited significant elevation in retinal layer thickness, increased numbers of choroidal mast cells along with degranulation in the connective tissue around the eyeball, pronounced Müller cell swelling, and neurodegenerative changes in the visual cortex. In contrast, dexamethasone-pretreated animals showed preserved retinal layer cytoarchitecture, reduced choroidal mast cell number, and decreased neuronal loss in the visual cortex. Overall, these findings demonstrate that dexamethasone pretreatment effectively preserves the structural integrity of both the retina and the visual cortex under acute hypoxic conditions.
The internal jugular vein (IJV) is in the fibrous carotid sheath, together with the common carotid artery and the vagus nerve. Various splitting patterns, such as fenestration, bifurcation or duplication of this vein are typically incidental surgical or radiological findings. Even though there are some approaches to define such patterns in medical literature, the terminologies are still used interchangeably by authors. Three different landmarks; the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, the hyoid bone and the intermediate tendon of the omohyoid muscle are applied to divide the IJV into four levels. The proposed classification uses these levels to define the IJV splits located in a single level as a fenestration, across two consecutive levels as a bifurcation, three as a partial duplication and all four as a total duplication. In addition, multiple venous splits in a single IJV can be possible which can align in parallel or at different levels. This new classification also considers the definition of rare but possible cases of such variations. This theoretical framework seeks to redefine the terminology in medical literature, to not only promote uniformity but also to enhance anatomical understanding and precision.
Pulmonary lymphoid aggregates are increasingly recognized as components of local immune responses in chronic lung diseases and infections. However, whether T- or B-lymphocytes predominate in non-tumorous peripheral pulmonary aggregates remains unclear. We aimed to identify site- and size-dependent patterns of lymphocyte composition. We examined 20 surgically obtained peripheral lung tissues located >50 mm from primary lung cancers in 20 patients. Immunoreactive cells, stromal cells, and lymph sinus-related structures were immunohistochemically analyzed. CD4-positive T-lymphocytes and CD20-positive B-lymphocytes were quantified in each aggregate and compared with aggregate size. We identified 138 lymphocyte aggregates, including spherical or nodular forms: 86 arteriole-associated, 28 subpleural, and 24 bronchiole-associated. Arteriole-associated aggregates were usually small (<100 μm) and located along arterioles 40-60 μm in diameter in the interalveolar septum, whereas subpleural aggregates measured 100-200 μm. The ratio of CD4-positive T-lymphocytes to CD20-positive B-lymphocytes (T/B ratio) ranged from 3.0-129.2 in arteriole-associated aggregates, 0.3-19.8 in subpleural aggregates, and 0.2-32.1 in bronchiole-associated aggregates. In 38 small arteriole-associated aggregates (<20,000 μm²), aggregate area weakly correlated with the T/B ratio (Spearman's ρ=0.328, P=0.044). Podoplanin-positive stromal cells were frequently observed, whereas dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin-positive cells were few or absent. Pulmonary lymphoid aggregates may develop through site-dependent stages of organization, from small CD4-positive T-lymphocyte-rich aggregates to larger nodular structures containing follicle-like B-cell clusters.
End-stage liver disease is a multifactorial disorder and leading cause of death. The development of effective tissue models has been a focus of research for treating liver disease. This study investigated the use of acellular lung matrix (ALM) and fibronectin (FN) to culture adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) and promote their differentiation into hepatic-like cells. In this experimental study, sodium deoxycholate and NaCl were used to decellularize the lungs, and scaffolds were characterized by histology, scanning electron microscopy, and DNA quantification. ADMSCs were differentiated into hepatocyte-like cells using a two-step protocol under three conditions: in two-dimensional culture, on ALM scaffolds, and on FN-coated ALM scaffolds. Hepatic differentiation was confirmed by RT-PCR for specific genes (alpha-fetoprotein [AFP], albumin [ALB], cytokeratin-18 [CK-18]), ALB and urea levels were measured using specific commercial kits. The main extracellular matrix components (collagen and glycosaminoglycans) were preserved, and residual DNA was minimal (P<0.001), indicating effective decellularization. ADMSCs cultured on FN-coated ALM exhibited significantly higher expression of hepatic markers (AFP, P<0.01; ALB, P<0.01; CK-18, P<0.01). Functional assay confirmed higher ALB and urea production (P<0.05), while MTT assay demonstrated that the scaffold was non-cytotoxic. Collectively, these results demonstrate that FN-coated ALM holds considerable potential for facilitating the hepatic differentiation of ADMSCs under the applied induction conditions.
Aripiprazole, a third-generation atypical antipsychotic drug, crosses the placental barrier, yet its developmental skeletal effects remain unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate impact of prenatal aripiprazole exposure, administered at three different doses, on the ossification of axial skeleton in 20-day old rat fetuses. Forty pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to four groups: control and three aripiprazole treated-groups receiving 3 mg/kg (low dose aripiprazole), 6 mg/kg (high dose aripiprazole), and 12 mg/kg (double high dose aripiprazole [DHDA]) daily from gestational days 6-19. Fetuses were delivered on gestation day 20, weighed, and processed for skeletal evaluation using Alizarin Red staining. Ossification of craniofacial bones, hyoid bone, vertebral centra and arches, sternum, and ribs were assessed and categorized as complete, delayed, or absent. A total of 151 fetuses were analyzed. Aripiprazole exposure induced a dose dependent reduction in fetal weight and in the number of completely ossified skeletal centers. Craniofacial bones, particularly parietal, interparietal, supraoccipital, and presphenoid, were the most affected. Significant impairments were observed in vertebral centra and arches across cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions, with the DHDA group exhibiting the greatest deficits. Sternebrae ossification showed marked reduction, whereas rib ossification remained unaffected. A strong positive correlation was found between fetal weight and total number of complete ossification centers across all groups. Prenatal exposure to aripiprazole leads to dose dependent fetal growth restriction and delayed ossification of axial skeleton in rat fetuses. Future investigations should focus on the molecular mechanisms and consequences related to prenatal impacts of aripiprazole.
There seems to be no information on when and how the nasal capsule cartilage is divided into the lateral nasal cartilage (LNC) and greater alar cartilage (GAC). Likewise, there is no information of timing and sequence of development of the medial crus of GAC. We examined histological sections from 22 human fetuses with 45-350 mm of crown-rump length (approximately 9-40 weeks of gestational age). The LNC and GAC were separated from the antero-inferior marginal part of the nasal capsule cartilage at 10-12 weeks. The initial sesamoid was a wavy bar and it did not accompany a joint cavity. The LNC did not make an end-to-end attachment to the septal cartilage and these cartilages were separated by sesamoid cartilages in levels below the nasal bone. However, we did not find a sesamoid between the LNC and GAC. After 27 weeks, the medial crus of the GAC was seen in the antero-inferior side of the septal cartilage. Thus, independently from the septal cartilage, it seemed to develop secondarily from the GAC main part. Relative to the nasal bone, the LNC at late-term was small in the supero-inferior axis. The vomeronasal cartilage was distant from and located in the posterior side of the external nasal cartilages and vestibulum. At birth, the LNC as well as the GAC including its medial crus seemed to be still separated from the septal cartilage. Their connections most likely establish postnatally with tight interdigitation of highly flexed cartilage ends. No lesser alar cartilage appeared at late-term.
Sex estimation is a fundamental component of forensic biological profiling, yet primary markers such as the pelvis and skull are frequently fragmented or absent due to taphonomic factors. This study investigates the diagnostic efficacy of the first and second atypical ribs for sex estimation within a Northern Thai population using advanced machine learning (ML). Osteometric variables, 15 for the first rib and 14 for the second were recorded from 200 right side ribs (100 males, 100 females) and 177 left side ribs (100 males, 77 females) at Chiang Mai University. Twelve ML algorithms, including ensemble stacking and voting classifiers, were refined via recursive feature elimination with cross-validation (RFECV) and hyperparameter optimization through the Optuna framework. Results demonstrated pronounced sexual dimorphism, with male dimensions consistently exceeding those of females across nearly all variables (P<0.05). Optimized models exhibited superior predictive performance; specifically, quadratic discriminant analysis for the right first rib yielded a hold-out accuracy of 85%. Notably, the stacking model applied to the right second rib achieved an accuracy of 90%, equivalent to the performance of models utilizing both ribs combined. In conclusion, ML integrated rib morphometry provides a highly accurate and robust alternative for sex estimation in the Northern Thai population, particularly in cases where standard skeletal markers are compromised.
A deep fascia is believed to develop after a cutaneous nerve (CN) reaches the subcutaneous tissue. The present study aimed to examine a developmental sequence of the CN perforation of the deep fascia. We examined the occipital and posterior neck region as well as the anterior abdominal wall using histological sections from 12 human early fetuses at approximately 7-9 weeks of gestation age (GA) and 10 midterm fetuses at approximately 12-18 weeks GA. When the anterior abdominal CN reached the anterior aspect of the rectus abdominis muscle at 7 weeks, the rectus sheath was still loose. However, the aponeurosis of the obliquus externus abdominis was relatively tight. Later, depending on the rectus sheath became evident, a "window" for the CN also became clear. After the anterior CN took a wavy course along the aponeurosis, it grew to the skin by 12 weeks. The occipital CNs reached the superficial surface of the semispinalis and ran superiorly along the fascia by 8 weeks. Later, depending on the superior extension of the splenius and trapezius muscles, the occipital CNs issued multiple twigs to perforate the superior margin of the upward extending fascia or muscle. Both a deep fascia and the window for CNs develop simultaneously. However, during several weeks, the CN likely stopped its further growth to the skin and remained on and along the fascia. Likewise, after perforation of the deep fascia, another fascia or muscle likely interferes with the straight course of CNs to the skin.
Dental caries remains as one of the most prevalent noncommunicable diseases even with advances in preventive dental care. This literature-based research examines how fluoride exposure influences enamel stability and caries formation. We hypothesized that fluoride reduces caries incidence by promoting remineralization and reinforcing the crystal lattice structure. A comprehensive search was done through PubMed, ScienceDirect, Karger, and Figshare to select peer reviewed studies that evaluated fluoride and enamel interactions. Quantitative data were extracted from open access in vitro and in vivo studies that incorporated transverse microradiography, electron probe microanalysis, micro-computed tomography, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy to fully assess the lesion depth, mineral density, and fluoride's effects on dental tissues. Of the 60 studies that were screened, 23 were met with the inclusion criteria. Across all experimental models, fluoride exposure produced a consistent concentration dependent positive effect in both the enamel and the dentin. In vitro and pH cycling models carious lesion depths approximately decreased 30%-50% relative to the control. Microanalytical measurements demonstrated high fluoride accumulation within the outer enamel surface. The lattice associated fluoride concentrations increased from baseline 200 ppm to over 1,200 ppm in treatment groups. These compositional changes caused improvement in mechanical and chemical stability, where it caused a 15%-25% increase in surface microhardness and a 35%-80% decrease in mineral (Ca2+) loss during acid exposure. Together, the results strongly indicate that fluoride enhances enamel stability through remineralization and lattice stabilizing mechanisms that increase the resistance to acid exposure.
Cell therapy is a potential therapeutic choice to treatment spinal cord injure (SCI). Studies proved that hypoxic precondition has protective effects on damaged cells. It sounds that a sub-lethal hypoxic exposure is likely enhance survival rates of transplanted cells. The aim of this study is the effect a novel strategy of preconditioning of human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) via hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on treatment rat SCI model. The hDPSCs were isolated from human third molar. The cells were cultured in various concentrations of H2O2 (0-400 μM) at different time points (2-48 hours). Then, the cell viability was estimated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. In rat SCI model, 0.5×106 hDPSCs with and without H2O2 preconditioning were locally transplanted in contusion site. Behavioral assessment was rendered within 7 weeks after injection. Besides, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was evaluated. The results of MTT showed that the cell viability rates were significantly lower at the higher concentrations of H2O2 at various times. However, the cell viability declined, followed by exposure to 50 μM H2O2 for a period of 2-12 hours compared with untreated cells. Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) findings revealed transplantation of the preconditioned hDPSCs increased BBB score significantly compared to the SCI group. Also, BDNF as a neurotrophic factor, dramatically increased in treated group. These finding suggest transplantation of sub-lethal concentration of H2O2 preconditioned hDPSCs would have protective roles through paracrine signals by enhancing survival capability transplanted cells which can cause motor neuron recovery in SCI.
The foramen of Magendie (FOM), or median aperture, represents a critical anatomical structure allowing cerebrospinal fluid outflow from the fourth ventricle into the cisterna magna. Since its description by François Magendie in the 19th century, its existence, embryological development, and clinical importance have been subjects of debate and refinement. This review synthesizes the historical context, developmental biology, and anatomical nuances of the FOM, alongside its involvement in congenital and acquired pathologies, particularly Blake's pouch cysts, Dandy-Walker malformations, and obstructive neoplasms. We further analyze controversies surrounding its recognition in early literature, anatomical variants including agenesis, and its surgical implications. Surgical approaches such as the telovelar and transvermian routes are compared, with emphasis on minimizing morbidity while ensuring exposure. Advances in neuroimaging and microsurgical technique have reinforced the FOM's relevance in modern neurosurgery. A comprehensive understanding of its anatomy, pathology, and historical discourse is essential for anatomists, neurosurgeons, and clinicians managing posterior fossa pathologies.
Cadaveric dissection remains vital in early medical education, yet India faces persistent cadaver shortages. Main objectives of this study were to estimate awareness and willingness toward body donation and to identify independent determinants of willingness among adults attending a tertiary-care outpatient department in North-East India. We conducted a cross-sectional questionnaire survey of adult patients and attendants at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Guwahati (March-May 2025). The main outcome was willingness to donate one's body after death. Predictors included demographics, residence, education/occupation, morbidity, comfort discussing voluntary body donation, information sources, knowledge ("where to donate," "who can consent," "importance of body donation"), perceived family agreement, and advocacy. Multivariable logistic regression estimated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of 309 respondents (mean age 35.3±10.5 years; 64.1% male), the most frequently cited barrier to willingness was the desire to fulfil religious rites after death (52.3%). In the adjusted model (n=233), family agreement (aOR 15.50; 95% CI: 6.29-38.22) and encouraging others (aOR 7.90; 95% CI: 2.97-21.02) were the only independent positive predictors. Urban residence (aOR 0.68; 95% CI: 0.36-1.29) and knowing where to donate (aOR 1.97; 95% CI: 0.97-4.00) showed suggestive, non-significant trends. Willingness for body donation depends mainly on expected family approval and peer influence but not demographic profile or knowledge. Efforts should focus on helping families accept donation and empowering local advocates, alongside respectful cultural engagement and clear donation logistics.
Michelangelo's Moses (1513-1515), created for the tomb of Pope Julius II, is celebrated for its expressive intensity and anatomical precision. While psychoanalytic and neuroaesthetic studies-from Freud's classic interpretation to contemporary imaging research-have highlighted its psychological power, less attention has been given to the anatomical structures that embody such restraint and authority. This essay focuses on the brachioradialis muscle in the right forearm of Moses, examining its role as both a functional anatomical detail and a sculptural symbol of controlled energy. Anatomically, the brachioradialis originates on the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus and inserts on the distal radius. Though located in the extensor compartment and innervated by the radial nerve, it primarily functions as an elbow flexor, especially in semi-pronation. Michelangelo's rendering captures this paradoxical muscle in a state of isometric contraction: the elbow flexed to 70-80 degrees, the forearm semi-pronated, and the hand gripping the tablets. The resulting bulge conveys readiness to act yet deliberate restraint, a visual translation of terribilità. Comparative analysis with Pollaiuolo, Leonardo, and Verrocchio reveals Michelangelo's unique synthesis of anatomical accuracy, biomechanical plausibility, and expressive intent. Psychoanalytic interpretations align with this physiological truth: the tension in the forearm symbolizes suppressed anger and moral discipline. From a modern perspective, the sculpture offers lessons for anatomical pedagogy and surgical practice, illustrating how structural knowledge and dynamic function converge in expressive form. The brachioradialis of Moses thus exemplifies the Renaissance integration of dissection-based anatomy and artistic imagination, sustaining its relevance across both art and medicine.
This study investigates the potential therapeutic effects of low-intensity extracorporeal shock wave therapy (Li-ESWT) in the treatment of chronic kidney disease (CKD) using a preclinical mice model, which was established by high adenine diet. Four experimental groups were formed: normal (NL), NL+Li-ESWT (NL+ESWT), CKD, and CKD+Li-ESWT (CKD+ESWT), and received appropriate interventions over a period of 3 weeks. Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed significant upregulation of HSP70 expression, a marker for cells affected by mechanical stimulus, in the NL+ESWT group, confirming successful delivery of Li-ESWT to kidney tissues. Body weight, kidney weight, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine values showed no significant differences between the NL and NL+ESWT groups, indicating that Li-ESWT alone did not affect these parameters. However, in the CKD+ESWT group, although kidney weight did not significantly differ from the CKD group, both body weight and renal function parameters showed marked improvement compared to the CKD group, suggesting a positive impact of Li-ESWT on general condition and renal function in CKD. The following histological examination showed that the CKD+ESWT group exhibited significantly reduced tubulointerstitial injury and fibrosis compared to the CKD group, further supporting the therapeutic potential of Li-ESWT in CKD management. To reveal potential modulation of ESWT on the upstream of fibrosis, fibrosis-related gene expressions, i.e., Acta2, Col1a1, Col3a1, and Fn1, were examined. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in the expression of fibrosis-related genes in the CKD+ESWT group compared to the CKD group, highlighting the molecular effects of Li-ESWT in mitigating CKDassociated fibrosis.
Fenestrations in the left renal vein (RV) were detected in two Japanese cadavers: a 96-year-old male (Case 1) and an 81-year-old female (Case 2). In Case 1, four left RVs emerged anterior to the renal arteries at the hilum. Fenestration 1 (0.5 cm) was found in the second highest vein. Fenestration 2 (1.0 cm) was found in the third highest vein. Three left renal arteries originated from the abdominal aorta and the inferior branch passed through fenestration 1. The left testicular artery arising 3.5 cm distal to the second-highest renal artery traversed fenestration 2. In Case 2, a fenestration was observed 4.5 cm distal to the left RV drainage into the inferior vena cava. The left middle suprarenal and left ovarian arteries originating from the abdominal aorta at L1/L2 and L2, respectively, passed through the fenestration. These rare variations enhance understanding of the development of the renal, gonadal, and suprarenal arteries.
Rodents have been studied widely to evaluate the cellular and molecular mechanism of tooth development, although significant differences exist between them that impact how the researchers design their experiment. The mandibular first molar M1 is the most studied tooth in both species and provides a model for crown morphogenesis, root initiation, periodontal ligament organization, and the tooth eruption. In mice the M1 development is rapid, the crown complete at birth and the tooth eruption postnatal P20-21, while in rats the tooth development events are delayed, with larger tooth germs and tooth eruption at P17. However, rats provide advantages for microinjection, histology and biochemical assays due to their larger molar compared to mice. In comparison, mice provide an excellent model for genetic related studies. However, systematic side-by-side analysis is limited, leaving a gap in understanding how timing, genetic signaling, and eruption are related among species. This review focuses on current knowledge of rat-mouse M1 development and compares the two models to help the researcher to determine model selection, and experimental design, particularly when translating the finding to human development or pathology.
