Agricultural expansion, intensification, and specialization improved human well-being over centuries, but they also contributed to current sustainability challenges. While historical transitions in agricultural production systems have significantly shaped present-day land-use patterns, their long-term legacy effects remain underexplored in sustainability research. Addressing this gap, our study provides a novel and comprehensive analysis of the spatial and temporal dynamics of agricultural land-use transitions in Denmark from 1861 to 1907, compared to recent times. We developed a method to trace and map the trends and patterns of transitions and investigate how historical changes in agricultural land management influence contemporary land-use patterns in Denmark, providing insights relevant to sustainability transitions more broadly. Using detailed parish-level agricultural statistics, we identified archetypes of historical agricultural systems based on dominant production types. We then assessed legacy effects by linking these past system archetypes to present-day land-use patterns using random forest regression and correlation analysis, while controlling for soil quality, population density, and market accessibility. We define land-use legacies as enduring impacts of historical agricultural system characteristics that continue to shape present-day land-use patterns. Our findings reveal positive correlations between historical and present indicators of feed crop yields and livestock densities (cattle and pigs), showing strong regional continuity, influencing modern agricultural patterns, and confirming the persistence of land-use legacies in Denmark. A major historical transition from mixed and plant-based systems to specialized livestock-intensive systems is confirmed by negative correlations and regional differences in crop production. These findings demonstrate that historical agricultural practices exert a long-lasting influence on current land use. Recognizing such legacy effects is critical for designing adaptive, regionally tailored policies and management strategies that support sustainable food system transitions. More broadly, our study contributes to international debates on path dependence, resilience, and transformation in agri-food systems, offering lessons that extend beyond the Danish case.
Sustainable livestock development needs to address multiple, potentially conflicting goals. The farming systems approach has emerged as a very useful tool to deal with the enormous diversity of smallholder farming in the tropics. Previous global classification of livestock farming systems has been useful at the global scale, yet its application becomes limited at the local and granular scales: It is less useful for delivering targeted advice to livestock farmers, identifying study populations and tracking changes in livestock management practices. To close this gap, we develop and test a novel approach that complements farm level classifications with a classification of herd management practices at the herd level. We define the herd management system as a typical combination of herd structure, feeding, and herd management, and their interlinkages. It is thus a sub-system of a household’s farming system. To develop the classification, we used an iterative process of reviewing, coding, and classifying primary studies on livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa. In a second step, we validate the classification's empirical consistency and usefulness using a secondary dataset. The classification can be useful to researchers and practitioners, as it (1) represents the complexity and diversity of livestock management practices as 12 distinct herd management systems; (2) enables more accurate targeting of livestock surveys and interventions, as the identified categories are more homogeneous regarding management factors such as livestock holdings, feeding practices, and hired labor; (3) improves communication and surveys with livestock farmers through a shared understanding of herd management practices, which can be translated into improved surveys with straightforward standard variables and better data structures; and (4) facilitates more granular assessments of change in livestock production.
Long-term cover cropping increases soil organic matter; however, the effect of cover crop duration on nitrogen (N) uptake by subsequent crops remains unclear. We hypothesized greater N uptake by grain corn with long-term cover cropping, due to both cover crop decomposition and increased mineralization of particulate and mineral-associated organic matter. Testing this hypothesis is critical for optimizing N management and enhancing the adoption of cover cropping. We introduced a novel experiment by growing cover crops for the first time on a subset of no cover crop plots to compare long-term, first-time, and no cover cropping. We applied 15N (12 kg N ha–1) in microplots after cover crop emergence and traced it into cover crops, corn, and soil (0–90 cm depth). During cover crop season (late fall and the following spring), long-term and first-time cover cropping had about double total 15N recovery in cover crop biomass and soil, compared to no cover cropping where only 30
The rate of on-farm biogas production by anaerobic digestion has increased in Europe since the beginning of the twenty-first century, largely due to policies supporting low-carbon energy production. Anaerobic digestion farms are farms where farmers invest in biogas production mainly from agricultural feedstock, and remain the main investors. Biogas production brings new challenges to agriculture, and current scientific literature does not provide clear conclusions on its agri-environmental effects. Current studies focus on one or more of the agri-environmental effects of on-farm biogas development (mainly greenhouse gas balance, carbon storage, and nitrogen losses), assuming that the farming system as a whole remains unchanged. However, they rarely investigate how biogas production performance relates to indirect changes in farm practices and activities. To better understand the changes in farm practices linked to biogas production, we surveyed 23 biogas farmers operating 19 different on-farm biogas units in two areas of northeast France. We aimed to cover various configurations (e.g., farm activities, digester capacity, number of farmers involved, and energy recovery methods) to capture a diversity of farm functioning. We analyzed these qualitative data by identifying recurring examples of practice changes (or lack thereof). Our results show that biogas development led to various changes in nitrogen fertilization practices, forage and permanent grassland management, and cultivation practices. Biogas production can induce both minor and significant changes on farms, with a variety of drivers of change. These changes depend on the farm characteristics and activities that biogas farmers can develop. The novelty of our research lies in highlighting this diversity of practices and drivers, which are generally not considered in the literature on the agri-environmental assessment of biogas, even though they could significantly affect the results of such assessments. Biogas sustainability research must better consider the dynamics of farming systems and farmers’ agency in on-farm biogas development.
Climate change poses significant threats to European agricultural production, with increasing frequency and severity of adverse weather events impacting crop yields. Agroforestry, the integration of woody elements into agricultural systems, is recognized as a vital agroecological approach for both climate change mitigation and adaptation, yet key mechanistic and long-term performance questions remain unresolved. This study utilized the mechanistic Hi-sAFe model to simulate 100 years (2001–2100) of silvoarable agroforestry performance at Wakelyns farm in southeastern England, focusing on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and pea (Pisum sativum) yields under intermediate (Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5) and very high (Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5) emissions scenarios. The research assessed yield stability, underlying microclimatic and phenological mechanisms, and long-term land-use efficiency (land equivalent ratio). This study demonstrates for the first time that agroforestry functions as a climate shock absorber by protecting crops during a critical early-season phenological window, preventing catastrophic yield failures under climate change scenarios. These protective effects were mechanistically linked to microclimatic modification, likely shade, provided by newly emerged walnut (Juglans regia) leaves during the early stages of crop flowering and grain filling, rather than during peak summer heat. While overall yield stability assessed statistically was not significantly enhanced, the mitigation of extreme downside risk represents a profound benefit for farm resilience. Analysis of land equivalent ratio revealed a substantial initial productivity lag, with consistent land equivalent ratio > 1 achieved only after 80 years for wheat and 40 years for pea, highlighting economic adoption barriers but also the potential for optimized system design and adaptive management to accelerate productivity gains. Overall, these results identify a previously unreported mechanistic and temporal basis for agroforestry’s capacity to buffer temperate arable crops against climate-induced yield shocks.
Enhancing ecosystem services without compromising crop productivity is a central challenge for sustainable agriculture, yet biophysical drivers of yield variability across farming approaches remain poorly resolved. Here, we provide the first comparative global assessment of how climate, soil, and topographic conditions shape yield responses to agroforestry, cover cropping, no-tillage, and organic farming by synthesizing global meta-analytic datasets and linking field comparisons to a common framework of biophysical moderators. Across all sustainable farming approaches, there was no significant overall yield difference relative to conventional management (1.1
Agroforestry is a promising solution to enhance the resilience of agricultural systems against climate change. However, evidence on the long-term response of semi-natural agroforestry systems, such as extensive silvopastures, remains limited. To address this knowledge gap, this study assessed the production and temporal stability of a Mediterranean silvopastoral system, the Iberian dehesa, under climate change. The process-based Hi-sAFe model was used to simulate tree growth, pasture production, and their temporal stability from 1990 to 2100 under the very high emissions Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 scenario in open grasslands and silvopastures with 25 and 50 trees ha-1. Simulations were validated with long-term data on tree growth (2011-2023) and pasture production (2014-2024). We explored the optimal farm composition to maximize production and its temporal stability. The model accurately simulated tree growth (stem diameter; RMSE=1.63 cm, R2 = 0.98) and pasture production (RMSE=0.4 t ha-1, R2=0.95). Results indicated higher tree development and pasture biomass temporal stability at 25 than at 50 trees ha-1, with 40
Integrating legumes into cropping systems offers a promising strategy to mitigate the decline in soil fertility caused by continuous agricultural intensification. However, existing studies have mainly examined individual soil carbon or nitrogen indicators, or have been conducted within limited contexts, leaving a comprehensive understanding of soil carbon and nitrogen responses at the global scale lacking. We therefore conducted a global meta-analysis of 1199 observations from 173 field experiments to evaluate integrating legumes into cropping systems impacts on soil carbon and nitrogen under diverse management practices and environmental conditions. Our results showed that integrating legumes into cropping systems significantly increased the soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content by 4.60
Native fine flavor cacao fetches premium prices on specialty markets, owing to its superior sensorial traits. However, alleged low productivity limits its planting, and high-yielding bulk cacao dominates the international market. Overcoming the yield gap is necessary to promote fine flavor cacao and thus conserve cacao’s native genetic diversity, while increasing farmers’ revenues. We studied the compatibility and yield potential of six Blanco de Piura cacao genotypes, a fine flavour landrace from northwestern Peru. We compared planting designs with different genotype diversity and assessed the impact of plantation management intensity (frequency of pruning and removal of infested pods) on productivity. Following renewing the canopy of adult cacao trees using grafting, we quantified the yields of the six white-bean genotypes on 12 smallholder farms using three clonal designs: (1) monoclonal (one genotype per plot), (2) polyclonal rows (three genotypes alternated by row), and (3) polyclonal trees (three genotypes per tree). Yields were monitored for 3 years, starting 2 years after grafting, and compared with non-grafted controls. After 3 years, grafted trees yielded 59
Agroforestry provides essential ecosystem services while enhancing climate resilience and biodiversity in rural landscapes. Despite a growing body of research on farmers’ adoption of agroforestry, much less is known about citizens’ attitudes and priorities. Citizen disapproval of agroforestry practices or policies may undermine the legitimacy of these initiatives and impede their long-term implementation. This risk is particularly relevant in countries where agroforestry is being promoted as a national policy priority, such as the UK. We surveyed 1509 UK citizens to examine their attitudes toward agroforestry, explore factors influencing these attitudes, and study how these factors operate across distinct segments of the sample. Overall, participants expressed neutral to positive attitudes toward agroforestry. Benefits associated with climate resilience (wildlife habitat creation, greenhouse gas capture, and flood control) were rated most highly. Negative socio-economic consequences (delayed benefit realization, higher input requirements, and potential stakeholder conflicts) were identified as representing the greatest risks. Structural equation modeling validated a novel hybrid model explaining participants’ attitudes toward agroforestry, highlighting three primary drivers: evoked affect, perceived benefits, and the perceived importance of environmental conservation in farming. Latent class analysis identified three distinct citizen groups. The negative impact of perceived risk associated with agroforestry on attitudes was greatest among cautious conservation-oriented citizens. The positive impact of perceived threat to the rural environment exceeded the influence of perceived importance of environmental conservation in farming among citizens sensitive to threats to the rural environment. Among countryside-engaged eco-productive citizens, perceived importance of both environmental conservation and food productivity as well as attachment to the countryside emerged as strong positive predictors of acceptance. Our results provide evidence for adopting a holistic approach that accounts for diverse citizen preferences when promoting agroforestry across UK regions, and highlight the importance of addressing multiple ecosystem services at the landscape level in agroforestry policies.
Biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogels have been proposed as soil conditioners to mitigate agricultural water stress, yet evidence on their agronomic relevance and environmental safety remains fragmented and contradictory. This review synthesizes current knowledge across five domains: material composition, swelling performance, biodegradation, field-scale application, and economic viability. A recurring performance–sustainability paradox is identified, whereby formulations that improve swelling stability and durability often compromise biodegradability, while environmentally benign designs show poor persistence and limited field efficacy. A critical analysis reveals a systematic overestimation of performance in laboratory studies relative to field conditions. Swelling capacities measured in distilled water are often 5–10 times higher than those realized in field soils, and biodegradation studies predominantly rely on indirect proxies rather than confirming complete mineralization, leaving ecological risks unresolved. Field application techniques, such as broadcasting, incorporation, and seed coating, provide localized benefits but lack scalability. Meanwhile, high production costs and incomplete life cycle assessments undermine claims of sustainability. Unlike earlier descriptive reviews, this study offers a critical integrative synthesis across technical, agronomic, ecological, and economic dimensions. Future progress depends on whole-system frameworks that incorporate standardized agro-climatic testing, isotopic tracing, and metagenomic monitoring of biodegradation, mechanized delivery technologies, and life cycle assessment. Such interdisciplinary validation is essential for harmonizing performance with sustainability and advancing BSAHs from experimental prototypes to credible tools for climate-resilient agriculture.
Climate change is having an impact on European agricultural systems and will increasingly do so into the future. Agroforestry, the integration of trees or shrubs in agricultural production systems, has been repeatedly described as a productive, sustainable, and resilient approach to food production. Quantifying agricultural benefits of agroforestry in the context of resilience to current and future climate change in Europe is challenging. To fill this knowledge gap, we gathered the assessments of 60 experts on the resilience of different forms of agroforestry (silvoarable, silvopastoral, and systems with hedgerows, riparian buffer strips, and windbreaks) in diverse European regions to various climate change variables. Across all regions and independently of the agroforestry system type, agroforestry systems were observed to show stable yields (0
French organic vegetable farms vary from complex biodiversity-based systems with diverse crops to simpler input-based systems with fewer crops. Although this heterogeneity may reflect the conventionalization of organic farming, the environmental impacts of these contrasting production strategies remain poorly quantified. Assessing these impacts is important to inform debates on the environmental performance and future development of organic farming systems. However, diversified vegetable farms are difficult to evaluate with conventional crop-based life cycle assessment because they combine numerous crops on a small area. We therefore applied a farming-system life cycle assessment to three French organic vegetable farms: a large open-field farm, a highly diversified microfarm combining open-field and sheltered production, and a medium-sized sheltered production farm. Using functional units based on area, output mass, and value, we assessed climate change, marine eutrophication, on-farm biodiversity, land competition, and energy demand, and quantified plastic use. The functional unit used strongly influenced the ranking of the systems. Per ha, the sheltered production farm had the highest climate impact, while the open-field farm had the lowest. Per kg and per €, climate impacts varied less, with the open-field farm having the lowest. Energy demand per ha and per kg increased from the open-field farm to the microfarm to the sheltered production farm, while energy demand per € was similar for the open-field and microfarms and higher for the sheltered production farm. The open-field farm used much less plastic than the other two but had a lower biodiversity score and a higher land competition impact. None of the three systems clearly outperformed the others across all impacts. Biodiversity scores highlighted the critical role of semi-natural habitats, emphasizing the need for clear farm-boundary definitions in farming-system life cycle assessment. Estimating nitrate leaching remains challenging due to limitations of the IPCC Tier 1 model, resulting in high uncertainty in marine eutrophication estimates.
Tomato is one of the most popular and consumed crops worldwide and its cultivation via hydroponic techniques is widespread. In this study, we evaluated the performance of an evolving management strategy through an iterative system design over 8 years in an integrated-rooftop greenhouse in Barcelona. Yield, solar radiation, water and nutrient consumption, and environmental impacts through Life Cycle Assessment were analysed. We hypothesized that improving irrigation management, partially substituting mineral fertilizers with recovered nutrients, and ensuring optimal solar radiation would enhance tomato productivity while reducing the environmental impact. The highest productivity was obtained in 2023 (49 g plant−1 day−1), in a cycle using 100 g plant−1 of struvite and in a cycle using mineral fertilization. The replacement of deteriorated polycarbonate sheets in 2023 increased greenhouse solar transmissivity and led to the highest productivity. Life Cycle Assessment impacts were mainly driven by crop yields, growing system characteristics, and energy required to power artificial lighting or nebulization systems, among other inputs. The lowest environmental impacts were obtained in the 2017 cycle (0.54 kg CO2 eq.) followed by the 2023 cycle (0.94 kg CO2 eq.), in which the highest yields were produced thanks to optimal solar transmissivity, dynamic fertigation, and/or struvite. The highest environmental impacts (3.84–12.05 kg CO2 eq.) were achieved in cycles with the lowest productivity (0.9–3.3 kg m−2) and in cycles using artificial lighting in the greenhouse (3.71 kg CO2 eq.) or in an indoor environment (7.07 kg CO2 eq.). Our findings demonstrate that statistically higher yields and environmental sustainability can be achieved by adopting struvite-based fertilization and regularly replacing the greenhouse covering material to ensure maximum light transmissivity. This research provides valuable and novel insights into optimizing tomato cultivation in rooftop greenhouses, achieving constant yields, and reducing the environmental footprints thus contributing to sustainable food production.
Grasses constitute a key functional group in cover cropping strategies, particularly under the challenging conditions of Mediterranean climates, owing to their drought tolerance, rapid development, high biomass production, and extensive ground cover. Although their role in enhancing ecosystem services and supporting sustainable agroecosystems is increasingly recognized, a comprehensive synthesis specifically addressing Mediterranean climates is still lacking. To evaluate management options for efficient cover cropping strategies and the associated ecosystem services, this systematic review synthesizes evidence from 64 peer-reviewed field studies on grass cover crops, grown as single species or within grass-based mixtures, across three major Mediterranean agroecosystems (vineyards, orchards, and arable cropping systems). The following key points emerged: (1) cool-season grass species, either grain annual cereals or perennial forages, are the most effective at increasing soil organic matter content and nutrient availability, decreasing soil erosion, and suppressing weeds in Mediterranean environments; (2) if not properly managed, grass cover crops can compete with cash crops, immobilize soil N, and decrease crop yield; (3) species selection should be based on specific pedo-climatic characteristics and intended agronomic purposes; (4) despite context-specific differences, recommended management options in Mediterranean climate regions include drill planting, early autumn sowing, an appropriate seeding rate, and timely mechanical termination; and (5) optimizing cover cropping management based on biomass production and C/N ratio can help balance benefits and trade-offs, enabling targeted enhancement of specific ecosystem services. Grasses, when combined with legumes, often deliver even greater ecosystem services than when grown alone, as legumes complement grasses by increasing N availability, improving residue quality, and supporting more balanced biomass production. We conclude that grass cover crops hold considerable promise for promoting sustainable Mediterranean agriculture but require more long-term, multifunctional research to optimize their use.
Reinforcing the regulation of pests by their natural enemies is a promising way of reducing the use of pesticides and can be achieved through the adoption of management options at multiple scales, from field to landscape. In practice, however, most management efforts concentrate on modifying farming practices at the field level and examples of implementation of landscape-scale pest management strategies are scarce. Here, we report on place-based research that combined the co-design of scenarios of landscape-scale changes in farming practices and ex ante evaluation of pest control services under such scenarios, through the development of predictive models mobilizing long-term local data in two contrasting landscape case studies. We found that scenarios of farming change and predictive models of pest control services were site-specific. In both case studies, we show a high degree of spatial interdependency between farmers in the delivery of on-farm pest control services and, more importantly, that a wide adoption of pest control friendly-farming practices in the landscape leads to a win-win situation for each individual farmer. Farms that implemented changes were predicted to increase on-farm pest control services between 2
Sustainable weed management is a key challenge in fruit and olive orchards. Conventional practices, such as intensive weed control and monoculture, can degrade soil quality and reduce biodiversity, threatening long-term productivity. Living mulch, defined as an herbaceous soil coverage, grown alongside the main crop, represents a promising agroecological strategy for enhancing ecosystem services. However, current knowledge on living mulch in orchards remains fragmented, with studies often focusing on single ecosystem functions and providing context-dependent and sometimes contrasting results. This limits the ability to identify consistent patterns and to support practical decision-making. To address this gap, this systematic review synthesizes and integrates the available evidence on the effects of living mulch on orchard agroecosystems, focusing on weed suppression, soil fertility, biodiversity, soil physical and chemical properties, pest control, agronomic performance, and tree root system dynamics. Findings indicate that living mulch contributes to undesired species suppression (82 records), increases biodiversity and soil fertility (109 records), enhances soil microbial activity and nutrient cycling (120 records), improves soil structure and water retention (66 records), and supports beneficial insect populations for natural pest control (49 records). However, living mulch may also introduce challenges such as resource competition with fruit trees and potentially provide habitats for rodents. The magnitude of these effects varies depending on species selection, pedoclimatic conditions, and management practices. A satisfactory outcome of introducing living mulch in an orchard depends on selecting the appropriate living mulch species and management practices, as well as on shifting farmers’ perspectives to emphasize the long-term ecosystem services of living mulches rather than focusing solely on short-term crop yield. A participatory approach involving farmers is essential for optimizing living mulch integration into orchard systems. Long-term studies are needed to assess the resilience and productivity of living mulch-based management strategies over time.
In northwestern Vietnam, agroforestry is promoted to enhance environmental sustainability and support livelihoods, especially in resource-constrained situations. However, farmers adapt agroforestry in diverse ways, and there is still limited structured understanding of how differences in farm resources and configurations shape adoption patterns and support needs. Lack of knowledge about adoption patterns limits the design of cost-effective interventions. To fill this gap, we employed a participatory approach to develop a farm typology that links farm structure, agroforestry adoption patterns and group-specific constraints. Survey data from 101 households were analyzed using archetype analysis to identify distinct farm profiles. These profiles were validated through a series of farmer workshops to explore group-specific constraints and support needs. The archetype analysis identified three distinct agroforestry archetypes, each reflecting unique resource constraints. Archetype 1 and Archetype 2 both represent small-scale farmers with limited agricultural labor and diversified livelihood activities, but they differ in land configuration: Archetype 1 farmers manage more consolidated land and maintain high crop and tree diversity, whereas Archetype 2 farmers operate highly fragmented, small plots with limited potential to diversify. Archetype 3 farmers operate the largest farms among the three groups; they rely on annual crops and show the lowest agroforestry adoption level, with moderate species diversity in their agroforestry systems. Across archetypes, farmers emphasized needs for market access, as well as financial support for production inputs, tree seedlings and irrigation systems, system diversification and technical knowledge. Yet the rationale for these needs differed across groups. Our study is novel in combining data-driven archetype analysis with participatory validation to generate an action-oriented understanding of farm heterogeneity. The results show that support strategies should not only respond to common needs but also to the distinct constraints shaping agroforestry adoption across different farm contexts, highlighting the importance of context-specific, constraint-aware agroforestry policy and extension.
