Introduction: Absenteeism is a multifactorial phenomenon. The study aimed to analyze specific indicators (Absenteeism rate, Frequency of sickness absence, Cumulative incidence, Duration of absence, Length of sickness absence, Bradford Score) among municipal employees and to compare them across certain variables (gender, position, age, seniority). Methods: In this retrospective cross-sectional study, the sample was the employees of the Municipality of Keratsini for year 2022. Data were collected through the individual employees’ sick leave file, processed with Microsoft Excel and statistically analyzed with Stata (chi-square tests). A comparison of the results between two previous studies with the same sample followed. Results: Females (n=179/45.8%) received statistically sick leave more frequently (females with at least one sick leave: n=148/82.7%, males with at least one sick leave: n=128/60.4%) (p<0.005) and employees with 20-29 years of service (n=117/29.9%) received significantly more likely to take sick leave (employees with 20-29 years of service with at least one sick leave: n=89/76.1%) (p=0.04). Regarding the 3 studies’ comparison, there was an increase in the number of absentees (2001: n=155/55%, 2007: n=134/40%, 2022: n=276/70.5% (p<0.001) and in the granting of sick leave with a medical certificate (2001: n=219/45.7% 2007: n=133/39%, 2022: n=252/30%) (p<0.001) and a health board (2001: n=110/23% 2007: n=102/29.9%, 2022: n=304/36.3%) (p<0.001). Conclusion: Absenteeism indicators can reveal groups or individuals with an increased propensity to receive sick leave. Some of the study’s results aligned to international literature (category of female employees, category of cleaning employees). Longitudinal comparison revealed an increase in absenteeism that could be justified by a number of factors (increased age, COVID-19 pandemic, periods of economic or health crisis). A number of countermeasures are suggested (close monitoring, return-to-work interviews, vaccination, ensuring personal hygiene in the workplace, upgrade of the role of occupational physicians).
Introduction: Musculoskeletal discomfort in nurses is becoming more common. Studies have revealed that age and exposure to causative factors over the years might trigger symptoms. The goal of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and factors influencing the work-related musculoskeletal discomfort indications among young female nurses. Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed between August, 2020 to November 2022. Maintaining the inclusion and exclusion criteria of this study, female registered nurses were chosen with an age limit of 29 years. Modified Nordic Questionnaire, Physical Activity Level (PAL) questionnaire, Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ), and Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) tool were used. Percentage analysis, Correlation analysis, and Binary Logistic Regression tests were performed. Results: 79.4% of participants reported the presence of musculoskeletal discomfort in at least one body region, and the most frequent among them was lower back pain (LBP) with a percentage of 51.4%. Quantitative Demand, General Health, and Vitality displayed a significant relation with LBP. Posture analysis exhibited high bending angles. Conclusion: Musculoskeletal discomfort complaints among young nurses disclosed an alarming prevalence. High work demand and frequently unfavorable postures aided the outcomes. Addressing the discomfort among young workers is of the utmost priority to ensure good health and forestall deteriorating symptoms in the future. Amelioration of work-related discomforts can lead to improved performance, enhanced job quality, and improved physical and mental health. As health sectors play a vital role in society and embrace a large number of young workers, assessing the workers' discomfort leads to a better and flourishing tomorrow led by healthier individuals.
Introduction: Water is a fundamental natural resource for health, social well-being and sustainable development. Despite the implementation of technical and institutional measures, water challenges persist, highlighting the need for interventions that also focus on human behavior. In this context, education is recognized as a critical factor in shaping sustainability-oriented approaches to water management. The aim of this study is to review and synthesize the literature on water education, with emphasis on educational levels, thematic units, pedagogical approaches and reported learning outcomes. Methods: A narrative literature review was conducted in international scientific databases. Studies were selected that concerned educational initiatives and interventions on water within the context of Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development. Results: The findings show that most interventions are implemented in primary and secondary education and utilize experiential and participatory pedagogical approaches. Most studies document positive effects on knowledge and attitudes, while data on long-term behavioral change remain limited. Conclusion: Water education contributes substantially to strengthening water culture and environmental awareness, while highlighting the need for more systematic evaluation and further research on long-term educational outcomes.
This paper explores how the teachings of Bhagavad Gita contribute to enhance occupational health and safety of the employees in the workplace. Modern occupational health and safety (OHS) practices have become effective in addressing physical and psychosocial risks. However, they fail to deal with emotional challenges faced by employees Hence, the spiritual approaches have drawn the attention of both employer and employees to enrich workplace resilience and integrity. This study answers how the spiritual teachings of the Bhagavad Gita contribute to promoting holistic approaches for the safety of employees and their ethical culture. The research seeks to integrate core Gita’s teachings into modern OHS frameworks with a view to enhancing emotional resilience and ethical behavior of employees. The teachings such dharma (righteous duty), vairāgya (detachment), abhyāsa (practice), ātma-jñāna (self-knowledge), and sthita-prajña (emotional stability) offer deep insights in order to foster mental health, ethical conduct and purposeful action in high-pressure occupational settings. The study develops a psychospiritual model for occupational health and safety. The study draws its reference from Eknath Easwaran’s translation of the Gita. It also focuses recent research in positive organizational psychology, mindfulness-based stress reduction and psychosocial risk frameworks. This interdisciplinary study illustrates how ancient wisdom can complement modern practices. The proposed model emphasizes inner transformation as a foundation for external well-being. It offers a holistic approach to OHS that includes ethical clarity, emotional regulation, resilience and self-transcendence. Ultimately, this article argues that the Bhagavad Gita, acting as a practical manual for cultivating occupational health in the modern era, makes a paradigm shift toward psychospiritual integration in workplace policies, training and leadership development.
Introduction: Municipal solid waste workers (MSWWs) are routinely exposed to airborne pollutants, including bioaerosols and combustion by-products, which may contribute to respiratory symptoms and reduced lung function. This study aimed to evaluate the respiratory health of MSWWs employed in local government cleaning services across six municipalities in Greece. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 621 municipal employees, including 407 MSWWs and 214 office-based employees as controls. Participants underwent spirometry according to ERS/ATS 2019 guidelines and completed a structured questionnaire assessing respiratory symptoms, occupational history, and smoking status. Descriptive statistics were calculated. Between group comparisons were performed using unadjusted independent sample t-tests for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used for correlation analyses. Results: MSWWs demonstrated significantly lower mean FEV1 and FVC values compared to office employees (p < 0.001 and p = 0.004, respectively). Respiratory symptoms (cough, sputum production, wheezing, dyspnea) were more frequently reported among MSWWs. Descriptive stratified analyses indicated lower spirometric values among current smokers in both occupational groups; however, interaction effects were not formally tested. Spirometric indices showed modest inverse associations with years of employment; these associations were descriptive and may reflect confounding (e.g., age) rather than cumulative exposure effects. Conclusion: These unadjusted findings are consistent with a potential occupational contribution to respiratory health differences. However, causal inference is limited. Further studies incorporating quantitative exposure assessment and multivariable modeling are recommended.
Introduction: The shoe-making industry is one of the largest industries in the country. It employs more than 1.10 million workers from rural areas with a lower socio-economic background. These workers are exposed to different types of occupational hazards at the workplace. Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) is one of the major burdens among the workers. Methods: This study used standard methods and surveys to measure the physiological and demographic characteristics of the shoe-making workers and schoolteachers. Modified Nordic questionnaires and the body part discomfort (BPD) scale were used to record the musculoskeletal disorders and the degree of pain felt. The Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) method was used to evaluate the workers' working posture. Standard statistical tools were used to analyze the data. Results - In this study, it was found that shoe-making workers were suffering from excess fatigue (88.6%), accidents (92.0%), addiction (78.6%), and MSDs (96.6%). It was observed that the wrist (OR-21.98, 95% CI- 10.06-48.04, p <0.0001) was the most affected body part, followed by the neck, hip, lower back, etc., due to pulling, bending, and twisting postures as well as repetitive actions. Significant correlation had been found between MSD with age and experience. BPD score proportionally increased with age and experience, whereas it was inversely proportional to education and duration of tiffin break. Conclusion: Shoe-making workers suffer from occupational stress and adverse working conditions. Proper working postures, a work-rest cycle, training, education, and frequent medical check-ups can reduce their occupational stress.
Introduction: Informal tourism workers play a vital role in Indonesia’s tourism economy but often lack access to occupational health protections, making them vulnerable to workplace hazards. Basic Occupational Health Services (BOHS) provide a preventive and promotive health framework for underserved sectors; however, participation among informal workers remains limited and the determinants of readiness to engage in BOHS are still poorly understood. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 222 informal tourism workers in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Data were collected using validated questionnaires and analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to examine the relationships among health promotion, social capital, motivation, and readiness to participate in BOHS. Results: Social capital exerted the strongest influence on health promotion (β = 0.667, p < 0.001) and significantly affected motivation (β = 0.273, p = 0.003) and readiness to participate (β = 0.234, p = 0.001). Health promotion significantly predicted motivation (β = 0.240, p = 0.004) and readiness (β = 0.360, p < 0.001). Motivation partially mediated the effects of both social capital and health promotion on readiness. The model demonstrated moderate to substantial explanatory power (R² readiness = 0.534) and good predictive relevance (Q² readiness = 0.283). Conclusion: Strengthening BOHS participation among informal tourism workers requires strategies that enhance community social capital and motivational engagement rather than relying solely on information dissemination. Participatory health promotion and community-based initiatives may improve readiness and sustainability of BOHS programmes in informal tourism settings.
Introduction: Occupational health promotes physical, mental and social well-being of all workers in their jobs. In Burkina Faso, however, it hardly covers the informal sector. The study aimed to analyze the occupational health problems perceived by informal sector workers in the city of Ouagadougou in 2024. Methods: We conducted an exploratory qualitative cross-sectional study through semi-structured individual interviews using an interview guide. It included workers of informal sector coming from trade, services and industrial domains and managers of structures working with them. A thematic analysis was carried out using NVIVO 14 software. Results: Unhealthy working conditions, occupational hazards and inaccessibility to occupational health services were the problems cited by workers. Deficiency of knowledge on these risks, regulatory obligations and the use of personal protective equipment were cited as causes of occupational hazards. The causes of occupational health services inaccessibility were lack of information on these services, the lack of organization of the sector and the focus on the formal sector. The solutions proposed were legal, medical and technical. Conclusion: Informal workers are confronted to a range of health problems. Their needs should be highlighted in the country’s occupational health and social protection policies and strategies.
Introduction: Methane and toxic gases build up in sewer pipes and septic tanks and are extremely dangerous in their ability to cause explosions and poisoning to workers in the confined sewer. The traditional monitoring controls, like infection ventilation and human checking, cannot be used to offer real-time protection. Methods: In this work, the authors show an Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled cyber-physical system of real-time gas detection and automated mitigation. The system combines the MQ-4 (methane), MQ-135 (CO2 /NH 3/VOCs), and MQ-136 (H2S) sensors and place on the ESP32 microcontroller. A moving average-based compensation method is used to stabilize a sensor in contaminated conditions with minimum recalibration requirements. Alerts and ventilation are activated when methane reaches over 25% of the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) using MQTT, in accordance with OSHA and NFPA safety requirements. Results: Testing with 250 cases indicated that the system is reliably able to detect hazards, alert, and mitigate without failure. The response time was 8.2 seconds on average, which is a safeguard against gas buildup. Multi-gas sensitivity (±18% was within a reasonable range, and the system was able to run on backup power up to 18 hours. Conclusion: The offered IoT system would turn the sanitation safety from passive observation to active protection due to real-time multi-gas detection and automated response. It offers an affordable yet scalable way of ensuring occupational safety within dangerous confined spaces.
Introduction: Workers in overhead electrical distribution networks (OEDNs) face numerous physicochemical hazards. In Greece, wooden poles (WPs) used in OEDNs are typically treated with creosote, a complex mixture containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heteroaromatic compounds and tar acids/bases. Creosote is a probable human carcinogen and a skin and eye irritant and can result in environmental contamination from creosote “bleeding”. Methods: A cross-sectional study of the health effects in OEDNs in Northern Greece was conducted between January and September 2024. Fifty-six employees (70% response) completed a structured questionnaire covering demographic data, opinions and attitudes towards personal protective equipment (PPE), and the potential impact on their health and the environment arising from creosote in WPs. Ethics approval was received from the University of West Attica Ethics Committee (Ref. No. 4608, 24 Jan 2024). Results: Frequent contact with creosote-treated poles was reported by 66.1% of participants. While climbing newly creosote-treated poles, workers reported skin burns (46.4%), eye irritation (32.1%), and dermatitis (25.0%). Symptoms were described as more intense during the summer. Of the sample group, 66.1% recognized creosote-related health hazards, 42.9% were aware of the potential for soil contamination, and 30.4% for water contamination. Conclusion: Based on the study findings, creosote remains a tangible occupational and environmental hazard for line workers, especially when climbing newly creosote-treated poles. Environmental contamination from treated WPs was mainly localized in the surrounding soil, driven by creosote seepage and PAHs leaching. The phasing out of creosote, revising safety standards, and strengthening worker training are priorities for prevention.
Introduction: Health professionals face various workplace risks, including infections, improper patient handling, toxic chemicals including high level disinfectants and detergents, radiation, excessive heat and noise, psychosocial hazards, violence and harassment, injuries and inadequate access to safe water and sanitation. The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the occupational health and safety risks for health professionals working in digestive endoscopy departments. Methods: A Systematic Literature Review was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses review method in the PubMed and Scopus databases. The inclusion criteria were used: cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies, studies published in English, studies published in the last decade (2014-2024), and studies exclusively on endoscopic digestive tract workers. Results: The majority of the review results showed the high prevalence (up to 70%) of musculoskeletal injuries of healthcare professionals associated by the majority of health professionals to their work. The consequences of these injuries are absences from work, needing medical treatment, undergoing physical therapy or surgery. Other occupational hazards included infections and exposure to radiation during procedures with fluoroscopy. Conclusion: Undoubtedly, healthcare professionals working in endoscopic digestive departments are at high risk for occupational injuries and infections. Education of health professionals, at undergraduate level and throughout their professional life, the adoption and implementation of international guidelines and recommendations, while providing appropriate protective equipment, will improve the safety of health professionals and significantly reduce the impact on their health and the functioning of health services.
Introduction: Intensive Care Unit (ICU) nurses are increasingly exposed to work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD), making them among the most vulnerable healthcare workers globally. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of MSD among ICU nurses in Oman. It further examines the relationship between nursing activities and the prevalence of MSD among ICU nurses. Methods: This study deployed a cross-sectional research design and a concurrent observational ergonomic assessment. A Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire was completed by a random sample of 171 nurses to assess their perception of MSD pain. Subsequently, 48 nurses were observed using the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) tool to evaluate the impact of various nursing activities on nurses’ MSD. Results: The findings reveal a high prevalence of MSD symptoms among ICU female nurses. Significant associations were identified between adherence to safe work procedures and shoulder (p = 0.014), low back (p = 0.037), and foot/ankle pain (p = 0.022). Moreover, adults (heart Center) ICU were found to have the highest RULA score of about (6.6), followed by adults main, and pediatrics heart center (6.4) and (6.2) respectively. Conclusion: This study highlights the prevalence of Musculoskeletal Disorders among ICU nurses. It underscores the need for healthcare organizations to strengthen ergonomic training, patient-handling strategies, and workplace safety measures to support nurses’, safety, health, well-being and improve overall healthcare performance. The integration of occupational health and safety practices into ICU work environments enables policymakers, safety practitioners, and regulators to promote safety among ICU nurses.
Introduction: Women Waste Workers (WWWs) face significant occupational health risks due to minimal safety practices, limited access to vaccination, and inadequate use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). These factors contribute to respiratory diseases, injuries, and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from February to March 2024 among 90 WWWs in Kathmandu Metropolitan City (wards 10, 12, and 32) using purposive sampling. Data on demographics, work conditions, occupational health status, and PPE use were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s chi-square test, and multivariable logistic regression. Results: Most participants were aged 30–40 (47.8%), illiterate (55.6%), and married (87.8%). The majority handled dry waste (61.1%) and worked for ≤7 years (65.6%). Only 12.2% received occupational health and safety (OHS) training. Vaccination rates were low for tetanus (48.9%) and Hepatitis B (28.9%). MSDs (71%) were most common, followed by mental health-related issues (45.6%), skin diseases (42.2%), and respiratory diseases (41.1%). Despite 92.2% reporting PPE use, concerns remain over quality and effectiveness. Multiple binary logistic regression showed that workers earning ≤17,000 rupees had 6.7 times higher odds of skin disease (p = 0.038), while those with >7 years of experience had 85% lower odds (p = 0.002). Visiting a clinic once a year reduced the odds by 90% (p = 0.003), but never visiting showed no significant impact (p = 0.374). Conclusion: Women Waste Workers face severe occupational health risks, highlighting gaps in OHS training, vaccination, health-seeking behavior, and workplace policies. Strengthening OHS programs and improving PPE utilization are essential to protect their health.
Introduction: Welders are routinely exposed to high thermal loads, increasing the risk of heat stress. Environmental indices such as the Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) are commonly used for assessment but do not account for individual physiological responses. This study aimed to evaluate heat strain among welders using the Predicted Heat Strain (PHS) model defined by ISO 7933:2018, which integrates environmental and physiological factors. Methods: An observational study was conducted involving 41 male welders. Environmental parameters—including dry-bulb, wet-bulb, globe temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity—were measured three times during an 8-hour shift using a QUEST Temp° 44 monitor. Metabolic rate was estimated through task observation and standardized values. Predicted water loss was calculated using the PHS model through the FAME Lab PHS Calculator. Statistical analysis, including an independent samples t-test, was performed using Python in Google Colaboratory. Results: All participants experienced predicted water loss exceeding the 5% threshold recommended by ISO 7933:2018, ranging from 6.02% to 14.59%. The average WBGT was 26.11 °C, above the 25 °C limit for very high metabolic workloads. Participants with body weight below 65 kg had significantly higher proportional water loss (mean = 12.29%, SD = 1.62) compared to those with ≥65 kg (mean = 9.11%, SD = 1.51; t = 6.50, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Welders face substantial heat strain risk, particularly those with lower body mass. Combining physiological modeling with environmental assessment offers a more complete evaluation of heat exposure risks. Preventive strategies should address both environmental and individual factors to enhance worker protection.
Introduction: This study evaluates the prevalence and contributing factors of heat strain among roof tile workers exposed to temperatures exceeding occupational limits. Furthermore, it assesses how these heat-related health risks vary between male and female workers in semi-outdoor environments. Methods: This cross-sectional study involved 107 roof tile workers in Grobogan, Indonesia, utilizing validated questionnaires, WBGT measurements, and the Physiological Strain Index (PSI) to evaluate heat strain. Data were analyzed using Spearman’s rank, Pearson correlation, and chi-square tests to identify significant relationships between individual, occupational, and behavioral factors. Results: The PSI results of roof tile makers had an average score of 5.05 ± 0.40. The results demonstrated that female workers exhibited significantly higher physiological strain than males, primarily driven by biological differences in thermoregulatory capacity and greater adipose tissue insulation (p=0,000). Factors associated with heat strain were age (p=0.004), BMI (p=0.023), daily water intake (p=0.014), rest hours (p=0.000), heat stress (p=0.016), and workload (p=0.000). Conclusion: Despite natural acclimatization keeping overall strain moderate, heat stress, physical workload, female gender, and poor hydration remain critical determinants of physiological heat strain.
Introduction: Garment workers have low back pain (LBP) which impacts their productivity and health because they sit a lot and use non-ergonomic chairs. This was done by evaluating the effectiveness of ergonomic chairs among small scale garment workers in the reduction of LBP. Methods: The quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design was employed in which 102 sewing workers of micro and small-scale garment industries were used in Tuban Lor Village, Karanganyar Regency. The sample was divided into intervention (n= 51 ) and control (n= 51 ) groups. The intervention was in the form of an ergonomic chair that was developed along anthropometric measures of workers. On day 0, 7, and 14 Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) were used to measure LBP intensity and posture. Repeated Measures ANCOVA/One-Way ANCOVA were used to analyze data after adjusting it by age, gender, BMI and years of service. Results: It significantly decreased LBP scores time dependently in the intervention group (F=6.289, p=0.003) with an apparent linear trend (p=0.002), but not in the control group (p=0.390). Significant group differences were found at day 7 and 14 (p=0.001) and not at baseline (p=0.731). Covariates did not create any significant effect. There was also an improvement in posture scores in form of improved RULA scores. Conclusion: Within 14 days, ergonomic chair intervention was successful in reducing low back pain and increasing the posture of informal garment workers.
Introduction: Over 66% of the population in Nepal is engaged in agriculture, where pesticide exposure is a common issue among farmer. The shortage of personal protective equipment (PPE) and inadequate education on proper PPE use and spraying techniques further increase the risk of pesticide exposure. As pesticides are essential for agriculture and public health, this study aims to assess farmers' awareness regarding pesticides and their effects on health and the environment. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from 5th August to 5th November 2025 in Chisapani village of Baijanath Rural Municipality using convenience sampling. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Committee. A total of 100 farmers who had been farming for more than 6 months were included in the study. Results: Among the respondents, 74% perceived pesticides as poison; however, more than half (51%) had used them for 5 to 10 years. The highest proportion, 45% used pesticides for growing both vegetables and grains and 95% sprayed two to three times per month. More than half (52%) do not use any personal protective equipment. Only 23% knew the correct use, 30% checked the expiry date and type and 22% followed the proper directions of use. Health effects were reported by 29%, and 20% reported chronic long-term effects. Respondents who agreed that pesticides affect the environment (the pesticides contaminate surface and groundwater and soil, air, and target and non-target vegetables) were 97 %. Conclusion: The study found a gap between awareness and safe pesticide-use practices among farmers. Most respondents recognize pesticides as poisonous but continue to use them for years, two to three times per month. Although farmers have experienced health issues, many continue to ignore them and still lack safe practices.
Introduction: The evolving industrial landscape of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) necessitates a strategic approach to selecting competent occupational safety and health (OSH) professionals. Despite global frameworks, a contextual gap remains in aligning competencies with regional industry needs. This study identifies the most suitable competency factors for selecting OSH Officers and OSH Managers within United Arab Emirates (UAE) industries. Methods: A pragmatic mixed-methods study was conducted across the UAE (June–November 2024). Forty-two OSH recruiters and influencers participated in focus group discussions (8-12 per session) to identify core competencies. A web-based survey was administered to 351 randomly selected stakeholders from a 695-member sampling frame. The survey, validated for reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.89), used Likert scales to rate competencies. Content analysis refined definitions, while descriptive statistics and logistic regression identified demographic predictors of high-priority competencies. Ethical protocols and confidentiality were maintained. Results: Findings from the focus groups and survey revealed structured, role-specific expectations. OSH officers are expected to possess bachelor’s degrees (59.0%), NEBOSH/IOSH certifications (International General Certification/Managing Safely), and practical readiness through fire safety and first aid training. English proficiency (99.4%), local availability (92.3%), and good health status were prioritized. For OSH managers, leadership (90.9%), planning (71.2%), and strategic thinking (61.3%) were emphasized alongside higher qualifications - bachelor’s (57.3%), master’s (35.6%), and an OSH diploma (72.9%). Conclusion: OSH recruitment in the UAE follows a tiered competency framework. Incipient roles focus on technical readiness and availability, while managerial positions require strategic skills and maturity. Standardized, competency-based recruitment aligned to local context is essential to enhance safety performance across UAE industries.
Introduction: Occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the aluminum smelting industry poses a significant health risk. Methods: The study was conducted in 2021 at an aluminum production facility in Sohar Aluminum, Oman, to assess task-specific (cleaning, electrical, mechanical, and operation) occupational exposure to PAHS from the paste plant department. The non-exposed workers at the medical center are chosen as the control group. Personal air samples were collected using a 13-mm glass fiber filter (0.3 µm, SKC Inc.) housed in a Millipore Swinnase cassette. Post-shift urine samples were obtained across task groups during 8-hour shifts. PAHs and urinary 1-OHP levels were quantified through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results: Airborne PAH concentrations ranged from 0.0 to 417.4 µg/m³. The mean urinary 1-OHP concentration was 7.46 µmol/mol creatinine (range: 0.0–40.9). Electrical and mechanical maintenance workers showed the highest urinary 1-OHP levels. A strong positive correlation existed between airborne PAH and urinary 1-OHP (r = 0.900, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Elevated PAH exposure was task-specific, with the highest levels in electrical and mechanical roles. Urinary 1-OHP proved effective for monitoring internal PAH exposure, underscoring the need for targeted exposure reduction strategies.
Introduction: Drivers’ safety is a critical concern of road safety particularly in the context of Nepal’s major highways. This has threatened by a triangular interaction of human (driver), environmental and vehicle-related factors. Despite regulatory frameworks and alignment with global initiatives, Nepal records disproportionately high fatality rates of 15.9 per 100,000 population, above the South Asia regional average. Young and economically active drivers are particularly vulnerable, while poor infrastructure, rapid motorization, and weak vehicle inspection systems intensify risks. In light of above facts, this study is aimed to assess the multidimensional determinants affecting safety of the drivers across Nepal’s major highways, in prospect to human, environmental and vehicle-related factors. Methods: A mixed-methods approach was applied to assess determinants of drivers’ safety. Secondary crash data from Nepal Police (2016–2025) were combined with road infrastructure audits and surveys. Field assessments examined road geometry, pavement conditions, and signage, while 155 structured surveys and key stakeholder interviews (traffic police, policy maker, implementer, and residents) provided insights into driver behaviour and challenges. Spatial analysis using Kernel Density Estimation and Moran’s I identified high-risk crash hotspots. Results: Findings reveal that over-speeding, fatigue, alcohol use, and limited driving experience significantly increase the risks to crash and driver. Environmental factor includes, poor road geometry, degraded pavement, inadequate lighting, and monsoon-induced landslides further compromise safety. Vehicle-related factors such as overloading, brake failures, and poor maintenance undermine drivers’ control. Corridor-level analysis highlights Banepa (Araniko Highway) and Chisapani (East–West Highway) as critical risk zones, while the Prithvi Highway shows dispersed crash patterns linked to fatigue and weak barriers. Conclusion: Driver safety on Nepal’s highways is the interplay of human (driver) health and behaviour, infrastructure flaws, and vehicle condition. It requires tailored interventions based on specific corridor patterns. Key measures include strengthening governance, upgrading road and vehicle standards and tackling issues like fatigue and risky driving. A comprehensive, well-enforced strategy is essential to prevent crashes and improve safety performance.
