Chatbots can sometimes fail to meet user expectations, resulting in negative service experiences. In such cases, who is to blame? Whereas traditional attribution theory focuses on a dichotomy between internal and external targets, chatbot advertising often involves multiple external actors (e.g., chatbot, brand, third-party providers), highlighting the need for a multi-agent perspective. It also remains unclear when blame assigned during service failures influences consumer evaluations and behavior. Across two studies, we investigate these questions. Study 1 applied the classic attribution framework, finding that consumers blamed the chatbot more when service failed, and this attribution influenced interaction evaluations, product attitudes, and purchase intentions. Study 2 expanded this framework by introducing multiple external attribution targets, including chatbot, brand, and service provider, and manipulating chatbot performance and ownership. Results showed that consumers track responsibility through ownership chains, blaming brands or providers when they own the chatbot. Under the brand ownership, attribution to the chatbot significantly mediated negative outcomes, but attribution to the brand was not a significant mediator, suggesting the chatbot may serve as a partial moral crumple zone, absorbing and deflecting blame away from the brand. This research extends attribution theory and identifies when brands can be protected from direct reputational harm.
The digital trend in which people are inspired to achieve an empowered body image has proliferated on social media. Exposure to influencers' body image content on social media may affect consumers' appearance attention and consumption of products featured in the social media posts. Based on social comparison theory, this study investigates the relationships among consumers' wishful identification with creators, appearance orientation, and inspiration in the context of body image on social media. The study also examines how inspiration mediates the relationship between these factors and purchase intention and electronic word of mouth (eWOM). The results of an online survey (n = 300) show that wishful identification and appearance orientation significantly and positively influence inspiration, which enhances purchase intention and eWOM. Furthermore, inspiration mediates the association between wishful identification, appearance orientation, purchase intention, and eWOM. The study discusses the implications of these findings and proposes future research directions.
This study integrates affect transfer, social identity, and source credibility theories to empirically investigate how parasocial relationships with celebrity endorsers shape consumer brand love, focusing on consumer brand learning processes and perceptions of endorser credibility. This study employs the PROCESS macro to test hypotheses, utilizing survey data collected from 519 Chinese consumers in the realm of fashion brands. Our key findings suggest that consumer brand learning positively mediates the link between parasocial relationships and brand love. Furthermore, among the three dimensions of celebrity credibility, trustworthiness and expertise are pivotal in enhancing the positive indirect impact of a parasocial relationship on brand love, whereas the moderated mediating effect of attractiveness on this indirect path is not significant. This study advances the conceptual understanding of how parasocial relationships and endorser credibility jointly shape consumer brand love through cognitive and affective mechanisms, highlighting that dimensions of endorser credibility differ in their influence. The findings also offer practical insights for marketers navigating the complex landscape of celebrity endorsements, consumer learning, and consumer attitudes toward brands.
While the effects of online behavioral advertising (OBA) are well-studied, limited research has focused on how consumers process the fear feeling evoked by potential privacy invasions associated with OBA. This study integrates the Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) and the extended-Extended Parallel Process Model (e-EPPM) to examine how consumers' awareness of behavioral tracking of OBA influences their perceptions of threat and fear, as well as how they process these emotions through fear or danger control processes. Using data from an online survey (N = 543), the findings demonstrate that both conceptual and attitudinal persuasion knowledge of OBA amplifies perceived threat and fear, shaping consumers' intentions to click OBA. Importantly, the level of self-efficacy determines whether consumers adopt a fear control process (defensive motivation) or a danger control process (protection motivation), which in turn influences their intention to click OBA. This study highlights the role of multidimensional persuasion knowledge in shaping consumers' responses to the perceived privacy threats posed by OBA and underscores the moderating impact of self-efficacy in determining their coping response. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
This set of three studies-two involving electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) users and one involving nonsmokers-investigates the impacts of message fatigue from anti-smoking ads and message types using psychological distance on psychological reactance toward e-cigarette cessation ads, subsequently influencing behavioral intentions. The findings from all three studies consistently demonstrated that both smokers and nonsmokers experiencing higher message fatigue from anti-smoking ads showed diminished behavioral intentions. Specifically, this relationship was mediated by a higher perceived threat to freedom as the first-stage mediator and greater psychological reactance towards e-cigarette cessation ads as the second-stage mediator in a sequential manner. Furthermore, in Study 2, this serial relationship was magnified for e-cigarette users under the distant frame for social distance. The current study findings not only expand on earlier research, but also offer practical insights for social marketing in public health.
Two online experiments examined how anthropomorphism and message framing by virtual influencers (VIs) facilitated pro-environmental behavioral responses. Study 1 (n = 156) observed that human-like VIs (HVIs) increased intention to adopt pro-environmental lifestyles via increased perceived authenticity and parasocial interaction. However, Study 2 (n = 200) found that anime-like VIs (AVIs) elicited greater post-engagement intention through increased perceived authenticity. Contrary to narrative persuasion literature, statistical evidence elicited greater post-engagement intention than narratives. Narratives may also backfire by reducing the perceived authenticity of HVIs. Our research reconciles seemingly contrasting theoretical perspectives, revealing that they account for different types of behavioral responses.
Advertising for counterfeit products is increasingly prevalent, posing risks to both brands and consumers. In a survey of 916 adults, most participants recognized ads for counterfeits-often through content cues-and generally avoided purchasing. Among those who did buy a counterfeit product, most did so unknowingly. Structural equation modeling showed that ad recognition fostered persuasion knowledge, leading to greater resistance to ads for counterfeits in the future. Some consumers also developed negative views of advertising more broadly. Persuasion knowledge emerged as a key coping mechanism for ads for counterfeits. Finally, implications for the study and practice of advertising are discussed.
This study investigates the persuasive potential of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) advertisements in nonprofit campaigns, particularly among individuals with low issue involvement and varying levels of trait or state neuroticism. Grounded upon the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), Study 1 (n = 262) examined the effects of advertisement type, issue involvement, and trait neuroticism on campaign outcomes, with empathic concern as a potential mediator. Study 2 (n = 215) extended this investigation by testing the same relationships using state neuroticism. Results revealed that ASMR ads enhanced campaign attitudes among individuals with low issue involvement and high trait neuroticism compared with non-ASMR ads. However, ASMR ads were less effective among those with low issue involvement and high state neuroticism. Interestingly, ASMR ads were most persuasive among emotionally neutral individuals with low issue involvement, eliciting empathic concern and fostering favorable campaign outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications for prosocial and environmental advertising are discussed.
This research examines the effectiveness of digital transit advertising in a subway station. In Study 1, a survey explores the relationship between individuals' available cognitive resources passing through the station and environmental factors such as precipitation and rush-hour stress. In Study 2, the researchers install two digital signage displays with facial recognition technology in a crowded subway station to observe reactions to transit advertisements in video format. Results indicate that factors for passersby such as precipitation, rush hour, weekdays, and non-holidays reduce the fixation duration ratio on transit advertisements. Additionally, female passersby tend to pay more attention to transit ads than males.
Biometric methods hold significant promise for measuring consumer psychological responses to advertising, but the literature remains fragmented and lacks theoretical cohesion. To synthesize this growing field, the authors conducted a systematic bibliometric analysis of 216 articles (2000-2024), charting the intellectual structure of biometric applications in advertising research. Four distinct clusters emerged: (1) neurophysiological measurement and consumer cognition; (2) visual attention measurement via eye tracking; (3) consumer response measurement integrating biometric and traditional methods; and (4) advertising disclosure studies. Our analysis not only charts the evolution and current landscape but also maps the intellectual structure of the field to reveal how these methods are currently integrated into advertising theory. This synthesis highlights areas of theoretical connection and disconnection and outlines targeted directions for future work to improve the explanatory use of biometric data in studies of media influence and consumer behavior.
This study explores the persistent gap between corporate strategy and consumer perception in the advertising dubbing practices of multinational corporations (MNCs) in Tunisia. It adopts a qualitative research design combining eighteen professional interviews and three focus groups involving twenty-four consumers, analyzed through thematic coding using QDA Miner 6. The findings show that whereas MNCs approach dubbing primarily as a cost-efficient localization solution, consumers often perceive dubbed advertisements as inauthentic due to multiple forms of schema incongruence. The analysis culminates in the dubbing schema congruence-disfluency model, a novel conceptual framework explaining how sensorimotor, sociocultural, and vocal incongruences generate processing disfluency and contribute to advertising rejection. By linking corporate strategy, executional choices, and consumer cognition, the model extends international advertising theory through an integrated explanatory perspective. Situated in the post-pandemic digital media environment, where sustained exposure to original-language content on streaming platforms and social media has heightened sensitivity to artificiality, the study demonstrates that dubbing effectiveness depends on achieving holistic cultural congruence rather than linguistic accuracy alone. The findings encourage MNCs to move beyond a cost-driven logic toward a fluency-oriented approach that prioritizes cultural expertise, emotional authenticity, and local testing.
This qualitative research explores how creative directors, the professionals responsible for hiring artistic workers in advertising agencies, perceive digital signals of availability, with a focus on LinkedIn's "Open to Work" badge. Although intended to help job-seekers, the banner is severely criticized. Through 21 deep interviews with senior creatives in major U.S. cities, the study discovers how these signals are filtered through the unspoken rules of the industry. Participants often viewed generic cues as ineffective, while favoring postings that conveyed creativity or endorsement from respected peers. The findings, which were evaluated through the lens of signaling theory and Bourdieu's concepts of symbolic capital and social capital, suggest that declaring availability or readiness to work is not enough. How that availability is presented, and who vouches for the candidate, affects how the signals are received. The study contributes to theory by revealing that job-seeking in the creative field should be viewed as cultural navigation because practitioners stigmatize the available and glorify the busy. Practical implications are offered as well as an applicable tool to help creatives perform their availability when attempting to gain employment in informal hiring sectors such as advertising.
This study examines how exposure to nationwide vaccine education advertising campaigns is associated with individuals' intentions to challenge vaccine misinformation. Guided by the integrative model of behavioral prediction (IMBP), we investigate whether such campaigns are linked to attitudes, perceived norms, and self-efficacy related to countering misinformation. We first contextualize the study through an analysis of vaccine-related media coverage, advertising expenditures, and Google search trends, demonstrating the extensive presence of vaccine education advertising during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. We then report findings from a survey of 1,064 U.S. adults examining associations between advertising exposure and intentions to challenge misinformation across varying levels of vaccine conspiracy beliefs. Results indicate that greater exposure to vaccine education advertising is associated with stronger intentions to challenge misinformation, with these associations operating through attitudes, perceived norms, and self-efficacy. Notably, these relationships vary by vaccine conspiracy beliefs, with more skeptical individuals showing greater responsiveness as advertising exposure increases. Overall, the study highlights the theoretical and practical importance of vaccine education advertising in addressing misinformation during public health crises.
In spite of the growth in influencer marketing and concurrent academic attention to the topic, relatively little research has focused on online influencer activities among older adults. Of particular interest is whether older influencers can be effective with younger consumers. To this end, 25 qualitative interviews were conducted with young Chinese consumers. Drawing from Self-Presentation Theory, Congruity Theory, and consumer perceptions of authenticity, we address multiple research questions, including examining the factors associated with the appeal of "granfluencers" to young consumers; the type of content that leads to granfluencers' enhanced appeal; and factors related to perceptions of authenticity. Findings indicate that the key aspects of their appeal are the granfluencers' energetic lifestyles, attractive appearances, and talents and skills, as well as the younger consumers' compassion for the granfluencer. In terms of content, inclusion of a sense of incongruity, nostalgia, and family interactions in the communication resonates most with young audiences. In addition, the authenticity of granfluencers is found to be related to four key factors. The practical implications for using granfluencers to attract young consumers are discussed.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of influencers' perceived authenticity as a mediator that underlies the relationship between self-disclosure and parasocial relationships. By surveying 310 Instagram users, this study tests a model that investigates the effect of self-disclosure, perceived authenticity and parasocial relationship on followers' engagement with the post, with post value as a moderator. The findings indicate that self-disclosure affects parasocial relationships through perceived authenticity. In turn, parasocial relationships impact the extent to which Instagram users engage with the post. Moreover, perceived post value enhances the association between parasocial relationships and engagement with the post. The study advances our understanding of how parasocial relationships are shaped in social media platforms and highlights the central role of perceived authenticity in this process. It also offers insights about effective communication strategies for fostering influencers-followers' relationships and increasing engagements.
This study examined the interaction effects of message framing and descriptive norms on attitudes toward social media contests, brands, and participation intentions. This study also investigated the moderating role of brand involvement and social media contest engagement on the frames-norms interaction effects on participation intentions. A 2 (message framing: gain or loss) x 2 (descriptive norm: not-yet-popular or popular) between-subjects experimental study was conducted to test the hypotheses. The findings showed that gain-framed versus loss-framed messages led to more positive outcomes when the social media contest was not normative (i.e., not-yet-popular norm), while loss-framed versus gain-framed messages generated more favorable responses when the contest was normative (i.e., popular norm). However, brand involvement and social media engagement overrode this interaction on participation intentions. The findings are discussed considering social psychology theories, such as the principle of scarcity and social proof, prospect theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, and heuristic information processing. Practical implications are advanced for the strategic use of messaging in social media contests.
This work investigates how consumers respond to anti-drunk driving advertisements that feature guilt appeals sponsored by either an alcohol-sponsored brand or a nonprofit organization. Specifically, using the Persuasion Knowledge Model and the Limited Capacity Model, this study examines how sponsor type and guilt appeal intensity impact attitude toward the ad. The results of an experiment in the context of anti-drunk driving demonstrate an advertisement sponsored by an alcohol-brand elicits a less favorable attitude toward the advertisement compared to a nonprofit sponsor. However, findings reveal an alcohol brand-sponsored advertisement featuring a high intensity guilt appeal mitigate negative attitude toward the ad. This work offers both theoretical and practical implications.
This study investigates how branded meme relatedness-defined as the alignment between branded content and users' self-identity-shapes user engagement and purchase intention across social media platforms. Survey data from U.S. Facebook and TikTok users (N = 952) were analyzed using structural equation modeling and multigroup analysis. Results show that meme relatedness significantly predicts perceived novelty, fun, and hedonic engagement. Perceived trendiness, in turn, mediates the effect of these psychological responses on purchase intention, with novelty and fun emerging as key drivers. Notably, the effect of trendiness on purchase intention is stronger among TikTok users, highlighting the role of platform dynamics in shaping social media user-meme interactions. Theoretical and practical implications for meme marketing strategies are further discussed.
