This study investigates which structural factors most strongly predict armed and unarmed revolutionary destabilization across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), as well as Asia using country-year data for 1950-2022 and a set of economic, demographic, political, and climatic indicators. It employs an interpretable machine learning framework (CatBoost with SHAP values and permutation importance), which allows it to relax functional form assumptions, systematically compare predictor importance across outcomes and regions, and uncover nonlinear and interaction effects. Armed revolutionary destabilization is shown to be most strongly associated with prior conflict, economic contraction, natural-resource dependence, and weak state capacity, particularly in SSA and MENA, while in Asia it is driven more by domestic political-economic dynamics. Unarmed revolutionary destabilization is linked to institutional legitimacy, corruption vulnerability, population density, and external economic shocks, with export shocks most salient in Asia, incumbent duration in SSA, and trade integration in MENA.
The current study examines affectionate communication between young adult children and their parents across cultures. Participants ( N = 716) from China ( n = 201), Saudi Arabia ( n = 171), South Korea ( n = 159), and the U.S. ( n = 185) reported their perceptions of parents’ affectionate communication in verbal, nonverbal, and supportive aspects; their own affectionate communication toward parents; and relational closeness. The main findings are: (1) young adult children universally perceive their parents as communicating affection more often than they reciprocate, (2) among parents’ affectionate communication, supportive affectionate communication is the only form of communication associated with relational closeness, and (3) culture impacts frequencies of perceived parents’ and young adult children’s own affectionate communication and the association between affectionate communication and relational closeness. Implications for cross-cultural similarities and differences are addressed.
Amongst Aawambo families in Namibia, the practice of fosterage (i.e., a system whereby a child is raised by family or non-biological relations rather than their biological parents) remains a culturally consistent practice. Scholars have endeavored to understand the implications of this and similar parenting practices in and outside of Namibia, with evidence showing both potential positive and negative outcomes of fosterage for the children who experience this system. What has yet to be studied is the within-culture comparison of those who experience fosterage and those who do not as a correlate of adult psychological distress. These practices span regions of Namibia, with migration from rural to urban regions also interwoven into Aawambo familial structures and parental care. To better understand fosterage and psychological outcomes, the purpose of this study was to compare mental health of Aawambo adults who did and did not experience fosterage as children and live in a rural or urban area of the country at time of data collection. We found no differences in psychological distress by fosterage but did by region, with those in the urban area showing more distress. We discuss these findings with respect to the evolved nest concept of childcare and its implications for functioning in adulthood.
Beliefs about oneself are closely related to one's psychological distress, yet little is known about how different dimensions of self-perception interact to predict psychological distress and how these relationships vary across cultural contexts. This study examined cultural differences in the sense of agency and control, their associations with psychological distress, and the protective role of self-esteem among undergraduate students. The sample included 501 U.S. students and 336 Chinese students. Results revealed systematic cultural differences in agency and control: U.S. students reported higher levels of sense of positive agency and personal mastery, but lower levels of sense of negative agency and perceived constraints compared to Chinese students. Despite these cultural differences in mean values, higher agency and control were generally associated with lower psychological distress in both groups. Nevertheless, the association between perceived constraints and psychological distress was stronger among U.S. students than among Chinese students. Importantly, self-esteem was found to be a significant moderator of (by weakening) the link between sense of negative agency and psychological distress in both groups. These findings emphasize culturally nuanced patterns of psychological distress and suggest that interventions fostering a sense of agency/control and self-esteem could be effective in promoting well-being among college students across diverse cultural contexts.
This study examined the relationship between independent and interdependent self-construals, as measured by the Self-Construal Scale (SCS), to evaluate the independence of these constructs, and their associations with analytic-holistic thinking (Analysis-Holism Scale; AHS), Big Five personality traits, and subjective well-being across five cultural groups. Participants included 440 individuals from Korea (n = 109), Canada (n = 256; 90 European, 53 East Asian, 113 South Asian), and the United States (n = 75 European Americans). Independent and interdependent self-construals were uncorrelated among Koreans, European Canadians, and European Americans, consistent with theoretical expectations, whereas East Asian and South Asian Canadians showed positive correlations between the two self-construals. Self-construals also exhibited distinct patterns of associations with personality traits and subjective well-being indicators across cultural groups. These findings provide partial support for the theoretical independence of the two dimensions: independence was observed in monocultural groups, whereas a closer association emerged in bicultural groups. Overall, these results underscore the importance of evaluating the cross-cultural applicability of the SCS and AHS and highlight the need for culturally sensitive measurement approaches, particularly for bicultural populations, when assessing individuals' self-construals.
Migration exerts a profound influence on the socialization of individuals, shaping values, norms, and behaviors across generations. This study examined the relationships between family functionality, social connectedness, antisocial behavior, and prosocial behavior through a structural equation model, and compared these processes among Turkish youth residing in T & uuml;rkiye and European Union countries. The sample included 424 Turkish young people aged 18-25, with 207 born and raised in EU countries and 217 in T & uuml;rkiye. Data were collected using the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale IV, Social Connectedness Scale, Adult Prosociality Scale, and the Antisocial Behavior Subscale of the Risky Behavior Scale. European Turkish youth reported higher prosocial behavior than peers in T & uuml;rkiye. While total scores for family functionality did not differ significantly, balanced cohesion and flexibility were higher among European Turks, who also reported a more rigid, rule-bound family structure. Social connectedness and antisocial behavior partially mediated the relationship between family functionality and prosocial behavior. Multi-group analysis showed no significant differences between groups. The model was validated in both contexts, and migration status did not moderate the relationships. Overall, findings indicate a healthy family structure and socialization process among fourth-generation European Turkish youth, reflecting positive intergenerational effects of post-migration integration.
Although subjective well-being is frequently studied as an outcome of social and psychological factors, little is known about its longitudinal association with future optimism in diverse cultural settings. This study used data from 119,642 participants across 23 societies in the Global Flourishing Study to examine longitudinal associations between future optimism and subjective well-being. Multilevel analyses revealed reciprocal associations between optimism and well-being. However, future optimism at baseline was not significantly linked to subsequent subjective well-being until cultural context was considered. The cultural dimension of flexibility-monumentalism moderated these dynamics, with stronger links observed in flexible societies and weaker associations in more monumentalism contexts. These findings underscore the importance of considering cultural orientations when studying the temporal interplay between optimism and well-being across diverse populations.
Cultural differences comprise not only outwardly observable behaviors, but also internal psychological traits. One poorly understood domain of cross-cultural psychological variation is the organization of internal mental representations, and how this variation arises from experiential differences. Such an understanding could help reveal fundamental ways in which culture shapes the mind. Here we use the Internal Representations Questionnaire (IRQ) to investigate cross-cultural differences in modalities of thought such as visual imagery and internal speech. We compare respondents in China and Japan to the original US sample, testing the preregistered hypothesis that the structure of internal representations is associated with variation in writing systems. We found evidence of differences in factor structure between the US sample and the Japanese and Chinese respondents. An exploratory factor analysis for the Chinese data revealed that some aspects of inner speech are statistically inseparable from orthographic imagery in this population-an outcome consistent with psycholinguistic and neuroimaging findings about the development of an orthography-to-semantics direct pathway in Chinese readers but not in alphabetic readers. These findings suggest the presence of meaningful cultural variation in the structure of internal representations, which may be a downstream consequence of variation in writing systems.
Toolmaking is, by and large, a socially learned behavior that also requires individual practices. Although significant for understanding human evolution, the rise of industrialized mass production has reduced the need for handicraft practices and their inter-generational transmission in daily life. This study thus examines toolmaking skill acquisition in 170 non-industrial societies through a comprehensive compilation and coding of ethnographic text data using the eHRAF World Cultures. Grounded in the cultural evolution theory (CET), this descriptive analysis addresses six fundamental questions: what skills are most frequently learned, who transmits this knowledge, where skill acquisition takes place, when learning occurs developmentally, how skills are acquired, and why specific individuals are chosen as models. The most important finding addresses the “why” question of major transmission biases involved in the toolmaking skill acquisition, highlighting the dominant role of kin-based transmission bias. This provides an empirical recalibration to CET modeling studies, which have traditionally emphasized conformist and success/prestige-based biases. Moreover, this project creates a valuable foundation for exploring patterns in cultural learning and technological practices across societies featuring diverse subsistence strategies, while also providing a reference framework for archaeological interpretations of past learning dynamics.
Prior research on the relationship between Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use and job satisfaction has shown inconsistencies. This warrants retesting the relationship with larger, more representative multinational samples, and considering potential moderating factors, such as national culture. Using data from two multinational surveys (28 countries/regions and 32 countries/regions, respectively), we examine the relationship between ICT use and job satisfaction in a cross-cultural context, focusing on the role of cultural egalitarianism in this relationship. Results from multilevel analyses show a positive association between ICT use and job satisfaction. This association was moderated by the level of cultural egalitarianism: in more egalitarian cultures, the link between ICT use and job satisfaction is weaker. We conjecture that this pattern is due to the inherent satisfaction provided by the egalitarian culture itself, thereby reducing the perceived contribution of ICT use to job satisfaction. These findings hold significant implications for organizations and policymakers, particularly in an increasingly globalized and digitized work environment. This study emphasizes the importance of considering local cultural contexts in ICT strategy implementation and of cultivating an egalitarian culture to enhance job satisfaction.
We examine whether regional sectoral employment structure helps explain cross-regional variation in individualism–collectivism (IC) beyond income. Using a representative CATI survey of more than 18,000 respondents from 60 Russian regions (2019–2020) linked to employment statistics, we estimate OLS models of regional IC with log GRP per capita and controls (inequality, education, life expectancy, latitude, political openness). We find that agricultural employment shares are negatively associated with IC, whereas service/post-industrial shares are positively associated, net of income; industry shows mixed patterns. Conceptually, we distinguish two possible channels from economic structure to values—(i) a material-security channel (income effects) and (ii) an organizational-logic channel (workplace micro-contexts of autonomy, interdependence, and monitoring). Empirically, we focus on the second pathway and treat income as a covariate rather than a mediator. The findings suggest that how work is organized may matter for regional value profiles in addition to prosperity. Results are robust to alternative IC measure.
This study provides the first meta-analytic synthesis of organizational justice research in the Arab world, addressing a major gap in a field historically dominated by Western samples. The meta-analysis examined the relationships between the dimensions of organizational justice and key job outcomes, with a focus on comparing findings from Arab culture to those reported in Western cultural research. A comprehensive search of major databases identified 61 relevant studies (49 in Arabic and 12 in English) from 20 Arab countries. All four dimensions of organizational justice (distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational) showed significant positive correlations with job outcomes. Among these, trust demonstrated the strongest association, while organizational citizenship behaviors and performance showed relatively weaker correlations. Notably, interpersonal justice emerged as the most influential predictor across outcomes-particularly trust-underscoring its prominent role in Arab cultural contexts, whereas procedural justice tends to hold greater significance in Western culture. The analysis also confirmed the moderating role of procedural justice in the relationship between distributive justice and job satisfaction, indicating that unfair procedures can diminish the positive effects of favorable outcomes. By demonstrating both universal patterns and culturally specific variations in justice-outcome relationships, this study broadens the global understanding of fairness at work and provides a valuable reference point for cross-cultural organizational research.
Numerous studies show that individuals' satisfaction with their leisure relates to other aspects of their lives such as perceived quality of life, life satisfaction, subjective wellbeing, and self-rated health. However, the factors that lead to differences in leisure satisfaction are less well known, especially those involving culture. The purpose of this study is to determine which, among several variables common to samples from locations in Mainland China, Taiwan, and Brazil, best predict leisure satisfaction. An individual participant data meta-analysis indicates that age, education, income, and marital status are significant predictors. Frequency of participation in active leisure pursuits and the perceived importance of interpersonal leisure constraints significantly predict leisure satisfaction, as well. Finally, as our primary interest is in the predictive value of culture-related variables, we examine cultural competence, knowledge of the degree to which individuals know the cultural model of the importance of various leisure activities to a good lifestyle, and cultural consonance, the frequency in which individuals claim to participate in those activities, as predictors. Results indicate that cultural consonance with respect to activities agreed upon as high in importance to a good lifestyle is a robust predictor of leisure satisfaction but that cultural competence is not.
We revisit a critical problem of cross-cultural research: the non-independence of nations arising from shared ancestry and joint cultural diffusion. Recent review highlighted that few published cross-cultural studies attempt to control for such non-independence, often doing so inefficiently. This may compromise causal claims derived from such analyses. We reassess the problem and caution against using a one-size-fits-all "remedy" for non-independence. Non-independence can involve three distinct issues-(1) confounding by (un)observable variables, (2) Galton's problem (joint diffusion and shared ancestry) as a special case of confounding, and (3) non-independence as a nuisance-each requiring a careful assessment of the causal model and a specific treatment. Controlling for non-independence by default may result in one of five outcomes, including successful elimination of the bias, improving precision, doing nothing, harming precision, or introducing bias, which we demonstrate with simulations. Instead of rolling a five-sided dice, we encourage cross-cultural scholars to begin with a careful evaluation of their underlying theoretical assumptions and causal models. In essence, we contribute to the refinement of cross-cultural research methodology by advocating for a tailored approach to addressing non-independence that models the real-world processes under examination.
Cultural differences between societies have turned out to be crucial determinants of various salient political-economic processes, including economic development and governance. The persistent, deeply historically rooted individualism-collectivism divide is especially important in this respect. But does this cultural cleavage also matter for the size of the modern welfare state? Theoretically, the issue seems undetermined. On one side, critical scholars have been warning that individualism erodes social solidarity and cohesion, bolstering self-centered and self-seeking behavior, and thus undermining the prospects of a robust social safety net. On the other side, a wealth of empirical evidence shows individualism is associated with higher trust, more cooperation, and increased prosociality, suggesting it might act as a key structural foundation of the welfare state. Empirically, macro-level studies on the topic performed with large, globally representative sources are sparse to nonexistent. The present study seeks to address this gap in the literature by constructing a panel dataset of 120-140 countries and using the latest comprehensive, non-WEIRD-biased measure of collectivism. A variety of different statistical estimations, including causal instrumental-variable analyses based on the Parasite-Stress Theory of Values and Sociality, uncover no evidence to support the claim that individualism corrodes the welfare state. Instead, correlational random-effects regressions clearly suggest the opposite, with collectivism consistently and significantly negatively predicting the welfare state. Causal instrumental-variable analyses reveal a more mixed result, with many estimates turning out to be non-significant in at least some of the specifications.
This study investigates how culture shapes nunchi, a social skill deeply embedded in Confucian collectivist values, across Korean and American contexts. Traditionally viewed as uniquely Korean, nunchi involves sensitivity to subtle social cues and adaptive behavior promoting social harmony. We conducted a cross-cultural validation of the Nunchi Scale to compare cross-cultural differences in factor structure, response patterns, and reliability, and to examine factors associated with nunchi. Confirmatory factor analysis results preliminarily revealed a two-factor structure comprising Grasp (perceiving social cues) and Adjust (responding appropriately), with sufficient reliability across both cultures. Measurement invariance and differential item functioning analyses indicated differences in how Koreans and Americans interpreted individual items, suggesting culturally specific nuances in perceiving and enacting nunchi. Higher nunchi scores were associated with lower autistic traits, greater quality of life, and stronger cultural tightness across both groups. Collectivism correlated with higher nunchi only among Americans, suggesting that in individualistic cultures, nunchi aligns closely with personal collectivist beliefs, whereas in collectivistic cultures, it represents broader societal expectations. These findings underscore nunchi as a universally relevant skill, influenced by specific cultural orientations, and highlight the importance of refining the Nunchi Scale for broader cross-cultural applications and exploring its implications in diverse social contexts.
Globally, there are large disparities in wealth and political decision making power. By contrast, several African hunter-gatherer groups are considered exemplars of material and political egalitarianism. Whilst extant literature has revealed egalitarian maintenance mechanisms specific to individual communities, systematic cross-cultural analysis has been lacking. To better understand how egalitarianism is maintained, such ethnographic comparison would enable identification of shared and distinct processes among diverse egalitarian societies. Utilizing the eHRAF World Cultures database, we conducted a thematic analysis of 666 observations across four African hunter-gatherer groups. This study reveals six mechanisms relevant to maintaining egalitarianism: residential mobility, opportunity to acquire resources/information, widespread resource sharing/transfer, non-coercive and informal leadership, consensus-based decision making/dispute resolution, and social norm reinforcement. While these core mechanisms were actively maintained, the degree to which they were applied varied between groups. The greatest disparity was observed between the three more ‘immediate-return’ groups and the one more ‘delayed-return’ group, the latter utilising fewer levelling mechanisms. In all three more immediate-return groups, individuals formed morally unified coalitions to collaboratively suppress hierarchical behaviour. We also identify nuanced differences among the more immediate-return groups, chiefly in the balance between promoting individual autonomy and emphasising social connectedness. Examining hunter-gatherer egalitarianism from a cross-cultural perspective thus illuminates how greater equality is maintained, particularly through the dual processes of personal autonomy-seeking and coordinated collective action.
Bringing together the knowledge-, identity-, and morality-based accounts of trust, this article proposes a multilevel framework where all variants of interpersonal/institutional trust are factorially distinct yet collectively subsumed by a moralistic propensity to trust. As such, trust has both object-general and object-specific properties. With the integrated theorizing on trust, I attempt to uncover the causes and consequences of generalized trust toward international institutions, namely, international institutional trust. Specifically, I argue that international institutional trust is derived from a combination of outward exposure (knowledge-based), transnational identity (identity-based), and belief in human goodness (morality-based). Besides, people’s general orientations toward international institutions spill over and shape their more concrete views about world affairs. Individuals high in international institutional trust are expected to hold more favorable attitudes toward immigration and foreign nations. More importantly, given cross-national variability, such spillover effects are moderated by a country’s degree of openness to the international community. While the effects of international institutional trust become stronger in countries with low and high levels of openness, they decrease in countries with middle levels of openness, resulting in a U-shaped pattern. Analyses of the AsiaBarometer Survey and the World Values Survey lend empirical support to the above arguments.
Friendships vary in closeness and endurance: Some friendships are closer while others are more casual; some are more enduring while others last only as long as they are convenient. The present study examined friendship preferences in these dimensions. Using data from a cross-cultural sample ( N = 6224) taken from 12 countries, we found that the vast majority of participants preferred a combination of close and casual friendships, with a preference for having more close friendships. Similarly, most participants preferred a combination of enduring and convenience friendships, with a preference for having more enduring friendships. Additionally, participants’ preferences closely matched their actual friendships, with these findings being generally consistent across cultures. We found also that participants who preferred friendships that enabled them to receive support and social input were more likely to prefer close and enduring friendships over casual and convenient ones. The opposite was true for participants who preferred friendships that allowed them to achieve self-serving goals and gain access to mates. Furthermore, we found significant but small direct and indirect effects of the Dark Triad personality traits, especially Machiavellianism, on preferences for closeness and endurance in friendship.
Research has shown that modernization has changed people’s values. Yet, it remains unknown whether modernization has also changed ideological polarization, namely, the variability of values within the population. The paper investigates this question by analysing data from the World Value Survey about multiple countries sampled over multiple waves (339 wave-countries). Once modernization was operationalised as per capita gross domestic product, the analyses reveal that poor countries display greater ideological polarization in the domain of economics, gender equality and immigration. This fits with the idea that poor countries are predisposed to ideological polarization because they are transitioning towards modernity. Still, in domains like abortion and divorce, ideological polarization emerged to be greater in rich countries because here the population is divided between conservative and liberal positions, while most people in poor countries converge on conservative views. These observations clarify the multifaceted implications of modernization and highlight its influence upon political polarization.
