Hastelloy X (HX) is a solid solution–strengthened nickel-based superalloy that is frequently utilized in high-temperature applications where traditional welding frequently results in solidification cracking due to microsegregation that is rich in Mo and Cr. In order to address these problems, this study investigates the application of CO2 laser welding, which achieves full-depth penetration with minimal heat input. Using an L9 orthogonal array, three crucial parameters—laser power, welding speed, and focal length—were adjusted at three different levels. Tensile, impact, and microhardness testing were used to assess mechanical characteristics, while optical microscopy (OM), FESEM, EBSD, color mapping, and EDX were used to describe welds. With only a minor decrease in tensile strength, the resultant junctions showed mechanical characteristics similar to those of the base metal and were free of porosity and fractures. At lower welding speeds, especially at 3200 W, hardness increased. Strength was significantly influenced by grain size: Coarser grains (59.88 µm) reduced strength to around 540 MPa, whereas finer grains (39.5 µm) yielded a tensile strength of about 690 MPa. IPF maps showed mixed equiaxed and dendritic structures, while EBSD results emphasized the role of grain boundary character in strengthening. All things considered, CO2 laser welding showed efficacy in creating flawless HX joints with improved performance and refined microstructures, providing a viable substitute for traditional welding techniques.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received significant attention owing to their exceptional porosity, large surface area, and controllable pore chemistry; yet, a practical use is sometimes restricted by their brittle and powder-like state with poor processing capability. Cellulose and its nanostructured derivatives (NCC or NFC) are of prime interest as a sustainable material, widely available in the environment with low toxicity, to replace these methods. The obtained MOF–cellulose nanocomposites (MCNCs) make the best of both cellulose and the embedded MOFs on their mechanical strength, flexibility, and unique hierarchical structure, as well as the strong functional potential of the original MOFs. This review aims to give an overall introduction to MCNCs by introducing the key synthetic approaches, through means such as in situ growth, solvent-aided coassembly, and surface modification/seeding. This describes the cellulose morphology that varies from 3D aerogels and hydrogels to 2D films and foils or 1D fibers. Additionally, this review critically assesses the sophisticated characterization methods, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and porosity measurements (BET analysis), that are crucial for confirming the interfacial interactions, structural integrity, and hybrid properties of MCNCs. With an emphasis on sustainable solutions, the second section of the review focuses on the rapidly growing advanced applications of MCNCs. Heterogeneous catalysis, efficient environmental remediation (adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants), high-performance gas separation and storage (e.g., CO2 capture), and next-generation energy storage devices (supercapacitors and battery components) are some of the main application areas covered. We conclude by providing an overview of the present obstacles and future research paths required to advance MCNC technology from proof-of-concept studies conducted in laboratories to large-scale, commercially feasible industrial and biomedical applications.
Ce-doped Gd3(Al,Ga)5O12 (GAGG:Ce) scintillator single crystals were treated by high-pressure annealing using the hot isostatic pressure in an Ar+20%O2 atmosphere (HIP annealing) to improve their scintillation properties. HIP annealing compensates for the oxygen vacancies generated during crystal growth and introduces interstitial oxygen ions into the crystal structure. Charge compensation results in an increase in the number of Ce4+ ions, which accelerates the decay components and increases the light yield because of a decrease in oxygen vacancies. However, the lattice distortion caused by interstitial oxygen ions deteriorates the energy resolution and crystallinity. HIP annealing has an additional advantage over divalent codoping in improving the scintillation properties.
The need for sustainable materials with superior characteristics has paved the way for real-time research in natural fibre-reinforced laminates. In this regard, the static and dynamic mechanical properties and moisture absorption characteristics of banana fibre-reinforced epoxy composites prepared by the vacuum bag moulding method are investigated in this study. Banana fibre-based composite laminates with different fibre wt. % viz., 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 were manufactured and systematically evaluated for their tensile, flexural, impact, hardness and dynamic mechanical response and water absorption properties. The results showed that the mechanical properties increased with increasing fibre content up to 25 wt.% (S4) and then decreased because of fibre agglomeration, inadequate resin wetting and void formation. The S4 composite material exhibited the best mechanical properties, with tensile strength of 46.18 MPa, flexural strength of 64.83 MPa, impact strength of 21.86 kJ/m2 and hardness of 92 Shore D, respectively. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed that with the increase of fibre loading, the storage modulus of the S4 composite material increases correspondingly, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) gradually increases from 78°C to 83°C, indicating that the viscoelastic behaviour of the S4 composite material was enhanced. It is important to note that the higher Tg values, indicating reduced polymer chain mobility and stronger fibre–matrix interaction, were observed. The composites also had better damping characteristics and thermomechanical stability, as confirmed by Tan δ analysis. The higher moisture absorption was recorded for 30 wt.% fibre composites, which was attributed to its higher porosity and hydrophilic nature, as the fibre content and immersion time increased, and the moisture absorption increased. Overall, the composite made with 25 wt.% banana fibre had the best mechanical properties, thermomechanical stability and moisture resistance. The results reveal the potential of banana fibre-reinforced epoxy composites as lightweight, eco-friendly and high-strength materials for various industries, including automotive, construction, furniture and packaging.
Fly ash is widely used as a supplementary cementitious material to reduce Portland cement consumption and enhance the long-term performance of cementitious composites. However, meaningful comparison of fracture toughness and durability reported across published studies remains challenging because of differences in specimen geometry, testing methods, curing conditions, and reporting practices. This review critically evaluates recent advances in the fracture toughness and long-term durability of fly ash–based cementitious composites through a structured synthesis of peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2025. A normalization-based benchmarking framework was adopted to compare fracture and durability performance relative to corresponding control mixtures, thereby improving cross-study comparability. The review examines key fracture parameters, including critical stress intensity factor and fracture energy, together with durability indicators such as chloride permeability, sulfate resistance, freeze–thaw resistance, and carbonation depth. The synthesized evidence indicates that moderate fly ash replacement levels of approximately 25%–35% consistently provide the most balanced improvements in fracture resistance and durability through pore refinement, interfacial transition zone densification, and enhanced crack path tortuosity. In contrast, replacement levels exceeding approximately 40% may increase carbonation susceptibility under inadequate curing despite continued improvements in transport resistance. This review further integrates fracture mechanics, durability behavior, and microstructural evolution within a unified interpretation framework and identifies current research gaps, including the need for standardized fracture testing protocols and long-term field validation. The proposed benchmarking approach provides practical guidance for sustainable mix design and supports the development of more durable and resilient cementitious composites.
Tool-life prediction plays a vital role in improving machining efficiency, reducing production cost, and promoting sustainable manufacturing in metal cutting processes. This study presents an empirical and mathematical modeling approach for predicting tool life based on flank wear behavior under varying machining conditions. Experiments were conducted under dry-turning conditions on AISI 1015 mild steel using an uncoated tungsten carbide cutting insert mounted on an ACE two-axis CNC lathe. Cutting speeds (62–175 m/min), feed rates (0.22–0.9 mm/rev), and depths of cut (0.8–1.2 mm) were investigated. Tool life, based on VB = 0.35 mm (ISO 3685), was predominantly influenced by cutting speed. The developed regression-based tool-life model demonstrated good agreement with experimental observations, achieving an overall prediction accuracy greater than 92%, while the deviation between experimental and predicted values remained within ±15% under most machining conditions. The developed model can serve as a practical tool for selecting appropriate machining parameters, minimizing tool consumption, reducing material waste, and improving process sustainability. Thus, the study supports Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 9 by contributing toward efficient, reliable, and sustainable manufacturing practices.
Mixed-cation organometallic perovskite thin films with the composition MA1−xHAxPbBr3 (x = 0.0, 0.20, and 0.40) were synthesized via a solution-processed spin-coating method to investigate the influence of hydrazinium (HA) incorporation on the structural, optical, and electrical properties. XRD analysis confirmed that all compositions retained the cubic phase, while HA substitution induced lattice expansion, enhanced crystallite growth, and reduced lattice strain, dislocation density, and stacking fault probability, suggesting improved crystallinity and reduced defect-related structural disorder. SEM analysis revealed denser and more compact morphologies with enlarged grains, and EDX verified homogeneous elemental distribution and successful HA incorporation. FTIR spectra demonstrated systematic vibrational shifts consistent with modified hydrogen-bonding interactions within the perovskite structure. Optical analysis showed enhanced visible-light absorption, reduced reflectance, and a composition-dependent blue shift of the optical bandgap from 2.215 to 2.312 eV with increasing HA content. Hall effect measurements confirmed n-type conductivity and revealed substantial enhancement in carrier mobility and electrical conductivity after HA incorporation. These results indicate that partial substitution of methylammonium with HA modifies the microstructural and optoelectronic properties of MAPbBr3 thin films and provides a useful approach for tuning bromide-based perovskite materials for optoelectronic applications.
Thermodynamic equilibrium simulations using Aspen Plus delineate the iron–steam redox cycle operational envelope (843–1323 K), quantifying iron conversion (Fe/Fetotal), reaction enthalpy (ΔHR), and pH2/pH2O ratios. Temperature progressively lowers minimum pH2/pH2O for metallic iron formation—from > 5.0 at 843 K to ∼0.8 above 1100 K—while oxidation remains exothermic. Characteristic equilibrium hysteresis, phase plateaus (35% magnetite ⟶ wüstite, 75% wüstite ⟶ iron), and saturation knees define stable cyclic boundaries, with limitations above 1100 K shifting to kinetic/transport phenomena. These thermodynamic constraints support integrated SOEC–iron-oxide-storage–SOFC concepts within 1073–1123 K. The architecture enables closed material loops: (i) charging recirculates unreacted H2 to SOEC and feeds oxidation-produced H2O as coelectrolysis steam and (ii) discharging returns SOFC exhaust H2O for reoxidation, with residual H2O in the hot H2 product being benign. Dual-zone fluidized beds offer conceptual thermal integration pathways. Performance metrics (efficiency, costs, and scalability) represent literature projections requiring kinetic validation, reactor engineering, and technoeconomic analysis. The iron–steam cycle appears thermodynamically promising for high-temperature, long-duration energy storage compatible with renewable hydrogen infrastructure.
The advent of 3D printing has brought transformative opportunities to the footwear industry, particularly in the design and manufacture of high-performance running shoes. This review critically explores recent advancements in 3D-printed running footwear, with a specific focus on enhancing forward propulsion and plantar pressure distribution. Drawing on a wide range of peer-reviewed literature, it examines how additive manufacturing enables the creation of complex midsole lattice geometries such as diamond, grid, and tetrahedral structures that improve energy return, shock absorption, and gait efficiency. The review also considers biomechanical factors, including foot anatomy and strike patterns, to illustrate how 3D-printed shoes can be tailored to individual kinetic profiles. In addition, it discusses the integration of antimicrobial materials, smart insoles with embedded gait sensors, and the use of biodegradable or recycled inputs to promote sustainability. A comparative analysis with conventional running shoes highlights the advantages of 3D printing in terms of personalization, performance, and environmental impact. From this study it is deduced that different lattice structure geometries and the thickness of the midsole will have an effect on the enhancement of the forward motion and plantar pressure distribution on 3D-printed running shoes, providing better functionality. This review provides valuable insights for researchers, footwear engineers, and manufacturers into emerging trends, technical challenges, and future directions in the application of additive manufacturing for next-generation athletic footwear.
Recently, transition metal (TM)–doped nanostructures have attracted significant attention due to their enhanced physicochemical characteristics and diverse technological applications. Owing to this, our research employs DFT to analyze the structural, electronic, magnetic, thermodynamic, and optical properties of three geometries of BN nanostructures (fullerene, nanotube, and nanosheet) and to assess how doping with ferromagnetic TMs (Fe, Co, and Ni) affects these geometries. Our findings indicate that TMs have a significant influence on the physicochemical properties of these BN structures. Upon analyzing the morphology of these systems, we observed that fullerenes exhibit the longest average bond lengths, suggesting larger surface areas, which are ideal for nanosensor applications. In this regard, Ni-doped fullerene, which is BNF_B11N12-Ni, shows the highest area for surface interaction, with a bond length of 1.601 Å. Moreover, these TMs notably alter the electrical properties of BN structures as well. For instance, Ni-doped structures reveal semiconductive behavior with bandgaps ranging from 1.638 to 1.893 eV, presenting a promising alternative to silicon-based electronics, and Fe- and Ni-doped systems exhibit spin-polarized DOS, indicating magnetic properties suitable for spintronic applications. The thermodynamic analyses confirm the feasibility of these doped systems, while IR spectra reveal no imaginary frequencies, affirming structural stability. Across these geometries, pristine nanotube and nanosheet demonstrate strong UV absorption, reinforcing their potential in optoelectronics. Overall, these BN-derived geometries (both pristine and TMs-doped structures) show great promise for use in sensors, spintronics, electronics, and UV-protective devices.
Automated microstructural analysis utilizing a supervised U-Net-based convolutional neural network (CNN) deep learning (DL) approach to the segmentation and analysis of stereolithography-produced green body Al2O3 is the focus of this study. It has the potential to provide insight into how changes to processing and production can be optimized by looking at microstructures and measuring outcomes of changes to the system. The techniques of analysis remain the same as historical methods, scraping information from microstructures and understanding phase differences, particle morphology, defects, crack propagation, and other microscopic differences in materials. The system of learning, segmenting, and measuring can be automated allowing the researcher to focus less on attaining the information and more on determining how to make changes to optimize systems. Building a supervised DL model provides a reproducible, non-human-biased means to gather data from multiple images and multiple regions of each image and look for observable patterns and thus processing decisions based on them. In this research, additive manufactured Al2O3 was studied, cure powers were modified, and the layers and interlayer areas were investigated for microstructural changes. The result is a series of measurements discussed later that demonstrates the data derived from these samples and the judgments that are possible because we have these data. Subsequently, decisions on changes in processing or material are possible because the model is reproducible, automated, and representative of changes or optimization of materials and processing methods.
Pollutants can pose significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Removing such a perilous pollutant is essential for maintaining a healthy environment. Taking this into consideration, a new Ag–ZnO–g‐C 3 N 4 –MnO 2 quaternary heterostructure was synthesized through the sol–gel approach. The structural, topological (morphological), surface area, optical, and electronic properties of the nanomaterials were characterized using X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), and ultraviolet‐visible (UV). The relatively higher bandgap energies of the parent ZnO were significantly reduced from 3.11 to 2.31 eV, upon the formation of the composite, indicating the successful modification of the ZnO surface and optical property. The photocatalytic effectiveness of the as‐prepared materials was also explored. A high parentage (99%) of MB was degraded by Ag–ZnO–g‐C 3 N 4 –MnO 2 composite compared with other pristine materials. This is owing to the incorporation of Ag, MnO 2 , and g‐C 3 N 4 into the ZnO matrix. Furthermore, the antimicrobial efficacy of the composite was evaluated against the Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli , demonstrating a superior inhibition zone (22.8 ± 0.36 at 80 g/mL) compared with others. The synergistic effects of the components enhanced charge separation, leading to improved photocatalytic and antimicrobial performance. Moreover, the stability of the composite was studied, demonstrating good photocatalytic stability.
Labeling is crucial for enabling customers to identify and purchase apparel items accurately by providing necessary and reliable product information. However, conventional apparel labels, produced using various fibers and processes, have significant environmental and economic impacts. To address these challenges, replacing conventional labels with printed Quick Response (QR) codes presents a unique, eco‐friendly, and sustainability‐oriented alternative. This study evaluated the feasibility of using QR code labels with screen printing, as well as direct‐to‐film (DTF) transfer printing techniques. DTF prints on cotton and polyester retained complete scannability with a recognition time of around 1 s and good‐to‐excellent color fastness (Grade 4–5) after five wash cycles. On the other hand, screen‐printed labels on polyester failed after three washes and on cotton after two to three. Although DTF prints were somewhat rigid, they were still within tolerable comfort ranges. The results showed that DTF printing outperformed screen printing in clarity and durability. Although the printed fabric exhibited slightly increased stiffness, the fastness properties were acceptable and had minimal impact on user comfort. Therefore, conventional fabric labels may be replaced by DTF‐printed QR code labels. This eco‐friendly labeling method reduces auxiliary material inputs, enhances transparency and traceability for textile and apparel products, and promotes more sustainable manufacturing through emerging circular‐economy practices while improving consumer engagement with product information through digital integration.
In recent years, lead halide–based perovskite solar cells have garnered significant industrial interest due to their superior conversion efficiency, ease of manufacturing, low cost, and lightweight characteristics. However, toxicity and environmental hazards associated with lead have limited its application in commercial production. In this study, tin halide perovskite (CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 ) is explored as an alternative to lead halides due to its nontoxic and stable behavior. Additionally, Cu 2 O was used as the hole transport layer (HTL) and sulfur‐doped tin oxide (STO) was used as the electron transport layer (ETL) to ensure superior performance of the designed solar cell. The proposed structure, FTO/STO/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /Cu 2 O/Au, was systematically optimized to achieve maximum V oc , J sc , FF, and PCE by varying the thickness and doping concentrations of each layer to achieve maximum PCE. Simulation results revealed that optimal thicknesses of 0.9 μm for the absorber, 0.04 μm for the HTL, 0.21 μm for the ETL, and 0.05 μm for the FTO significantly enhanced performance, yielding a PCE of 30.16% through balanced light absorption, efficient charge transport, and minimal recombination losses. Further optimization of doping concentrations—10 19 cm −3 (absorber), 2 × 10 15 cm −3 (HTL), 2 × 10 15 cm −3 (ETL), and 10 15 cm −3 (FTO)—led to a peak PCE of 36.42%, driven by improved charge separation and reduced recombination. Defect analysis highlighted the critical impact of defect density in the absorber and at the ETL/absorber interface. Maintaining defect densities below N t ≤ 10 14 cm −3 and interface defect density N int ≤ 10 14 cm −3 is essential to preserving high V oc , J sc , FF, and long‐term stability. The performance was also sensitive to resistive and thermal effects, with optimal conditions observed at R sh ≥ 10 4 Ω·cm 2 and lower operating temperatures. The optimized CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 ‐based PSC achieved a PCE of 36.42%, high external quantum efficiency of ∼99.3% at 360 nm, strong carrier generation, and suppressed recombination, validating the potential of tin‐based perovskites.
Here, we present a systematic ab initio investigation of cesium‐based ternary compounds CsT 2 Si 2 (where T = Ni, In, Ga, Rh, Ta, and Ir), exploring their superconducting and physical properties through advanced density functional theory simulations. The structural analysis, phonon dispersion, and formation enthalpy confirm the presence of stable crystal phases and robust thermodynamic stability. The metallic nature and superconductivity of the compounds were established through electronic band‐structure and density‐of‐states analyses, while their optical properties confirm Drude‐like metallic reflectivity, consistent with their superconducting ground state. Mechanical stability, assessed through the Born criteria, demonstrates a combination of ductile and elastic anisotropies in Cs(NiSi) 2 , Cs(TaSi) 2 , and Cs(RhSi) 2 crystals, while the other compounds exhibit brittleness. Among these, Cs(RhSi) 2 emerges as the most promising candidate, exhibiting ∼55% greater stability and durability as a superconducting material, with a critical temperature ( T c ) below 28 K, compared to Cs(NiSi) 2 , which superconducts below ∼8 K, representing a DFT‐based analysis performed within the Allen–Dynes framework.
The synthesis of copper ion‐doped bismuth oxide nanonetwork structures has opened new horizons for enhancing their physical and chemical properties; it presents a novel growth mechanism for the low‐temperature hydrothermal synthesis of self‐assembled Cu‐doped Bi 2 O 3 nanostructures. The samples were characterized to assess their crystal structure through powder X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and morphology through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the optical band gap was estimated using UV–Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, while the photocatalytic performance was assessed by tracking the degradation of Rhodamine B under UV–Vis light irradiation. The findings indicate that the diffuse reflectance measurements of the ionic metal‐doped samples exhibited a shift in the absorption gab situation toward longer wavelengths along with an enhanced absorption extending into the visible spectrum. It was found that copper doping substitutes bismuth oxide in the lattice and exists in the form of Cu 2+ . The enhanced photocatalytic activity observed in these samples is likely due to higher crystallinity. Furthermore, the improvement in activity can be ascribed to the distinctive electron structure of the nanonetwork, which plays a significant role in the transfer of photogenerated electrons.
Additive manufacturing is redefining footwear fabrication by enabling customized designs, lightweight cellular structures and enhanced biomechanical performance all while optimizing material efficiency. This review critically evaluates the role of foot anthropometry, lattice architecture and process optimization in the design and production of 3D printed footwear. It investigates current foot‐scanning and plantar pressure measurement technologies and highlights their importance in achieving personalized fit, improved comfort and injury prevention across diverse user populations. The study further explores how lattice structures contribute to superior cushioning, weight reduction and energy return, supported by insights from finite element analysis, topology optimization and emerging machine learning approaches. Additionally, the influence of key 3D printing process parameters such as layer thickness, infill pattern and printing speed on mechanical behaviour and dimensional accuracy is discussed. Despite progress, challenges remain in standardizing lattice design frameworks, validating simulation models in real‐world conditions and improving access to integrated design tools. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary strategies that merge biomechanical understanding, lattice design innovation and advanced additive manufacturing processes to accelerate the development of next‐generation, high‐performance and customizable footwear.
The corrosion resistance of Al alloys is significant for their use in marine, structural, and transportation applications where long-term durability in chloride-rich environments is required. This study investigates the anodic oxide film formation and corrosion behavior of representative aluminum alloys of 1100, 5083-O, and 6063 types, after being anodized in an electrolyte of 0.89M (NH4)2 SO4 and 0.54M NH4F, with and without 5 wt% ethylene glycol (EG). Anodizing was conducted for 1 and 3 h, followed by dichromate sealing. Optical microscopy exhibited that EG suppresses fluoride-induced localized dissolution, producing smoother and more compact porous films, whereas non-EG electrolytes promoted pore merging, particularly in Mg-rich alloys. Potentiodynamic polarization and EIS revealed alloy- and time-dependent corrosion responses. AA1100 exhibited superior barrier properties with EG-assisted anodizing at short durations, while the long-term stability is governed by the imposed anodization conditions. AA5083-O demonstrated enhanced corrosion resistance without EG, attributed to aggressive fluoride etching and effective sealing. It is noted that EG improved early stage corrosion resistance, whereas prolonged immersion favored non-EG coatings due to stabilization by corrosion products for AA6063. Hardness measurements indicated postcorrosion strengthening from in situ formation of boehmite and hydrated alumina. Hence, optimized corrosion performance depends on anodizing chemistry, alloy composition, and treatment duration.
Medical textiles are an increasingly dynamic interdisciplinary area of interest, bringing together materials science, biomedical engineering, and healthcare technologies. The present review gives an overview and organized overview of the current situation in medical textiles, and it classifies those textiles into four broad categories: implantable, nonimplantable, healthcare and hygiene, and smart textiles. Each type of those four categories is considered by their functional needs, composition of material, production methods, and clinical usages. Detailed attention has been given to the latest progress of nanotechnology, bioresponsive polymers, and integration of smart textiles for diagnosing and therapeutic treatments. In addition, this paper critically assesses the sustainability issues of the generation of wastes, carbon emissions, and the ability of biodegradability by life cycle assessment (LCA) and circular design approaches. Important issues of scalability, harmony of regulations globally, and ethical issues related to data secrecy of smart textiles are also considered. By integrating various frontiers of the scattered and impoverished literature and emerging open challenges, the present review gives the strategic map of the next generation of intelligent, green, and patient-oriented medically oriented textiles to be designed and implemented by the researchers, industry players, and clinicians.
This paper reports on the design, fabrication methodology, and measurement of a microstrip patch antenna that is optically transparent and exhibits a reconfigurable frequency response using a nematic liquid crystal (LC) for 6G-Internet-of-Things applications. Indium–tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass is chemically etched to produce the antenna feed and radiating patch, and a nematic LC is deposited directly onto the antenna patch by employing drop-on-demand inkjet printing to precisely control the coverage area and height of the LC, reducing the amount of wasted LC materials by 85% compared to conventional infiltration processes. A continuously tunable frequency response is reported in an optically transparent antenna by controlling the dielectric permittivity of the LC layer via an externally applied electric field. Measurements of the antenna show that the transmittance through the device is reduced by 14% between wavelengths of 400–700 nm due to the 100-μm-thick layer of LC and alignment layers, a continuously reconfigurable frequency range of 90 MHz from 11.25 to 11.34 GHz, and an antenna gain of −4.38 dBi.
