This study presents the provenance analysis of obsidian artefacts excavated from Toyretepe, a Neolithic site located in the Ganja-Gazakh plain of western Azerbaijan. In this study, we sourced 50 obsidian artefacts from the 1962 excavations using portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF). The results indicate that the majority of the obsidian originated from sources in present-day Armenia and Georgia. Simultaneously, approximately one-quarter of the samples were found to originate from sources in northeastern Turkey, over 350 km away. These findings are consistent with the results obtained from the Göytepe site, which dates to the mid-sixth millennium BCE. However, at Göytepe, a chronological shift has been observed: the lower layers are dominated by obsidian from northeastern Turkey, while the upper layers indicate a shift toward Armenian and Georgian sources. Despite the lack of stratigraphic information for the Toyretepe samples, it is likely that the analyzed materials consist mainly of the late phase.
The period between 6200–4500 cal BC is a time of significant socio-economic and technological changes in the western Balkans. The spread of farming practices also triggered a series of changes in stone tool production. This paper explores intra- and inter-site variability in Neolithic lithic technology across the region, using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The results show that technology and typology remained relatively consistent, while the management of raw materials reveals distinct regional differences in both the Early and Late Neolithic. Geographical patterns of lithic distribution and access to resources further highlight regional and inter-regional connections, offering insights into community interactions and mobility.
This report suggests that ongoing debates over Levantine Early Iron Age chronology and the dating of the Santorini eruption largely arise from Bayesian overprecision, as defined by Peter Steier and Werner Rom (2000). In both cases, a chronological offset of about 60 years is traced to inappropriate calibration curve shape correction. We further show that distortions in Bayesian summed probability distributions (SPDs) – including spikes, artificial peaks, and systematic shifts – share the same cause. These issues cast serious doubt on the suitability of Bayesian SPDs for dates-as-data demographic analyses, supporting Timothy J. Heaton et al. (2025), whose concerns we share, though noting that such distortions do not occur in CalPal-generated SPDs. The SPD-based barcode seriation (BS) method avoids overprecision-caused distortions and automatically corrects for archaeological sampling bias.
The paper presents archaeological evidence of long-distance connections between the Early Bronze Age cultures of Central and Southeastern Europe with the Babyne Cultural Circle, which represents the transitional period between the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in southern Eastern Europe. These evident connections are demonstrated by only one of the three Babyne cultures – the Dnipro-Don Babyne culture (DDBC). They are recorded in the gender opposition in the burial ritual, as well as in the specific complex of jewellery and costume elements, which are atypical for Eastern Europe. The correlation of the burial rite and inventory characteristics common to the DDBC and the cultures/groups of the Carpathian–Danubian EBA allowed us to determine the list of the most likely ‘cultural donors’ who could have participated in the genesis of the DDBC – Mureş, Unterwölbling, Straubing, Únĕtice. A complex of parallels in material culture and 14C dates allows synchronizing the early DDBC with the Br A1b period (modified Reinecke’s scheme).
A sample of over 1300 Neolithic pottery vessels from 59 archaeological sites in southern Spain is analysed by means of a systematic methodological protocol developed for the purpose of assessing the structure of morphological diversity. Geometric morphometrics and computational methods of classification are applied in order to identify the fundamental groups and classes, and explore the three fundamental forces – design, function and tradition – behind the formal structure of Neolithic pottery assemblages. The results suggest a high level of design standardization based on a strong underlying production tradition, as well as regional variations in the western confines of the Mediterranean.
In this comprehensive study of the Utinoe Boloto section (eastern Baltic region) using geochronological, lithological, palynological, NPP and palaeoanthracological analyses, we described vegetation dynamics and identified changes in soil erosion and fire activity during the Lateglacial and early Holocene periods. In the context of regional vegetation evolution, the results allowed us to identify local features that were likely related to anthropogenic impact. Through palaeoecological data, we documented the onset of colonization of the area through changes in vegetation cover (a reduction in tree species against a background maximum spreading of hazel and fern) and the peaks of fire activity and soil erosion during 10 300–8600 cal BP. Trampling of the soil cover at the site of ancient activity and deliberate deforestation of the surrounding area were assumed to have occurred during this period. Elevated hazel and fern content in the spore–pollen spectrum, along with macrocharcoal peaks, may have indicated the burning of forest areas to stimulate hazel growth, which was one of the most important plant resources for the subsistence of the Mesolithic people. The results of this study thus indicate that prehistoric humans played an active role in interacting with nature, and that their anthropogenic impact on the surrounding landscape and vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the site was already visible in the Mesolithic. Human activities at Utinoe Boloto in the Mesolithic coincide with the fenland stage of the palaeobasin.
Eight samples of cordage along with a unique fragment of miniature birch bark plait, recovered from the classic wetland site of Sārnate in coastal western Latvia, together provide a rare insight into fibrework and plaiting in northeastern Europe in the late fourth millennium BC. Technical analysis of these finds is supplemented by stereomicroscopic examination of the decorative plait imprints that occur on the contemporaneous pottery of the region, potentially offering an additional window into the interlacing techniques practised by these hunter-fisher communities – although the analysis of these shallow and indistinct impressions has proven methodologically challenging.
The Early Eneolithic cemetery at Podivín in south Moravia, comprising seven burials together with a contemporary grave from Lednice, provides important evidence for understanding regional diversity in mortuary behaviour between 3800 and 3600 BCE. This study integrates multiple lines of bioarchaeological evidence – physical anthropological examination, palaeopathological assessment, isotope analysis (C, N, and Sr), dental microwear, and radiocarbon dating – to explore diet, mobility, and funerary practices. The predominance of extended inhumations lacking grave goods distinguishes the Moravian and northern Lower Austrian region from neighbouring areas, where crouched burials with rich assemblages were typical. The results point to a community mostly of local origin characterized by a diet heavily dependent on animal products and by unique palaeopathological indicators of vitamin C deficiency (scurvy). The Podivín group may therefore represent a pastoral subgroup within a sparsely populated marginal zone, contrasting with more agriculturally oriented settlements further north. Radiocarbon dates imply that the burial ground was used over an extended period. Although certain cultural traits link the site to the Funnel Beaker phenomenon, the local mortuary customs differ substantially, perhaps reflecting distinct ideological conceptions of death and the afterlife.
This article addresses the social organization of fifth-millennium BC metallurgically capable Kodžadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI and intra-Carpathian Bodrogkeresztúr communities. It articulates a conceptual framework for interpreting human aspects of Chalcolithic copper metallurgy in experimental archaeology, recent information from archaeogenetics and human stable-isotope dietary values, as well as archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological information, and the political anthropology of rank, to address the increased division of labour and community organization. The approach can be contrasted with views that associate the Chalcolithic in southeastern Europe with stratification and coercive power. Kodžadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI and intra-Carpathian Bodrogkeresztúr communities were distinctive for diversity rather than stratification.
The sites of Dudka and Szczepanki yielded rich evidence of the diversified burial rites of the hunter-gathers from the Early Mesolithic to the end of the Late Neolithic. The paper presents the chronological study of the local funeral rites correlated with changes in settlement strategy, which is based on a recently obtained new series of radiocarbon dates for human and dog burials at both sites. The most important is the cemetery at Dudka, which was used mainly in the Para-Neolithic Zedmar culture, between 4300–3500 cal BC. Cemetery was established in a place previously used for interments, since one grave with single female burial (VI-17) is dated to the Late Mesolithic. Interestingly, burials were made there until the end of the Late Neolithic, which is indicated by grave VI-18 dated to c. 2000 cal BC, although the cemetery area was probably settled then, and was no longer the main place dedicated only for funeral rites.
As part of a new research project at the famous site in Bronocice, Pińczów County (SE Poland), preliminary work, including magnetic prospecting, was conducted in 2020. This provided a new understanding of the Eneolithic settlement, significantly enhancing the data from excavations in the 1970s. The magnetic survey covered an area of over 50ha, enabling the identification of all three main zones of the site. The layout of ditches associated with defensive structures from various phases of the Eneolithic period was documented. Other settlement remains were also clearly visible, particularly the utility settlement pits.
This study investigates Early Bronze Age II (2700–2200 BC) settlement patterns in the western Gavkhuni plains of the Iranian Plateau, focusing on human-environment interactions. By analysing the spatial distribution of archaeological sites, we explore how local societies engaged with their natural and social surroundings. The research identifies key factors influencing settlement establishment and interprets behavioural systems through archaeological evidence. The findings suggest a systemic landscape shaped by subsistence strategies, including agriculture, animal husbandry, and industrial activities, offering insight into the socio-environmental dynamics of Early Bronze Age communities in this region.
This article addresses matters relating to the role of empathy as a key element of visual narration in the creation and reception of prehistoric art (c. 40 000 BC – c. fifth century BC) and early ancient art (c. 900–700 BC) in Europe. Drawing on neuroaesthetics research, particularly that which concerns the behaviour of mirror neurons, a discussion is provided of the mechanisms underlying the interpretation of intentions as well as the development of empathy and emotions in works of art. This analysis indicates that prehistoric art and early ancient art, despite their ostensibly limited means of expression – understood as simplified form, schematic representation, reduction of detail, and a restricted range of formal and technical devices – exhibit marked emotional and communicational impact. The author demonstrates that the way in which these depictions affect viewers of art – both past and present – is based on universal, neurobiologically conditioned mechanisms of aesthetic perception.
Šárka style is a term that has been used for over a century to describe a distinctive final Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) pottery style in Central Europe. However, its definition and the general perception of a related Šárka stage vary significantly among scholars, impacting significantly the chronology and understanding of the end of the Early Neolithic. This article examines the concept using the Statenice settlement as a case study, which has been considered an example of the beginning of the Šárka style. New excavations carried out from 2004 to 2010 enabled detailed studies of the site's taphonomy, typochronology, and absolute dating, allowing a re-evaluation of the term. The research revealed that the site's chronological classification varies due to the plurality of the Šárka style definition as well as ambiguity in the identification of its characteristic features. Additionally, it questions the assumption of the unilinear development of material culture, which is expected in the chronology of the period, but which does not correspond to the archaeological evidence. To address these shortcomings a more appropriate term – Šárka phenomenon – has been proposed, which abandons the implicit assumption of a regional and chronological occurrence and allows a more comprehensive approach to early stroked decoration during the transition to the Late Neolithic (Stroked Pottery culture).
This article examines the sole anthropomorphic representation associated with the sub-Neolithic Buh-Dniester culture (BDC). It is a conical marl artefact with schematic facial features, perforation, and engraved decoration. Comparative analysis in both farming and hunter-gatherer contexts of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe reveals its closest parallels with some Criş-Starčevo column-shaped ceramic figurines and a rare anthropomorphic ceramic loom weight, all dated to the second and early third quarters of the sixth millennium BC. Despite an apparent link to the farming sphere, this isolated stone symbolic object does not represent the worldview of the broader population associated with the BDC. Instead, it reflects only the individual choices of those who created, used, or acquired it, and provides important evidence of intercultural contacts along the agricultural frontier.
The Neolithic in Dalmatia began around 6000 cal BC, marked by the appearance of permanent settlements within the fertile valleys of the region’s karst landscape. Although the archaeobotanical evidence is limited, it indicates the cultivation of a variety of crops, including barley, emmer, einkorn, lentil, and flax, alongside the development of livestock farming, which shifted from a focus on sheep and goat husbandry to cattle farming. This paper presents an analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes from charred barley and emmer grains excavated from five Neolithic settlements: Pokrovnik, Rašinovac, Danilo-Bitinj, Krivače, and Velištak. The findings suggest that farming in Dalmatia could have involved the cultivation of small, permanent plots subjected to varying degrees of manuring. These results are consistent with broader trends in Neolithic Europe and provide new insights into the regional characteristics of early farming practices in the Adriatic.
Portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometry is widely employed in the geoarchaeological analysis of archaeological deposits. However, the preparation methods and laboratory protocols used remain diverse, with established standards frequently disregarded. In this study, we examine the effects of grinding on the precision of mean analyte concentrations and evaluate the suitability of different factory calibrations and their associated measurement modes for geoarchaeological applications. Using a set of samples from the floor of a prehistoric smithy rich in microrefuse, we explore site-specific calibration standards, the relationship between the number of measurements and precision, and assess how precision affects the interpretation of spatial datasets. Based on our findings, we offer a series of recommendations for geoarchaeologists analysing large datasets with pXRF spectrometry.
The ‘skull cults’ of the Neolithic Near East have long attracted scholarly attention but are often treated as an isolated regional phenomenon. This study explores their deeper origins and broader connections by examining material culture and symbolic practices from c. 150 000 to 8000 BP across Europe and the Near East. Using multifactorial statistical analyses of 32 features covering demography, body treatment, burial contexts, and grave goods from 219 sites, we integrate archaeological, climatic, theoretical, and archaeogenetic data. Results suggest that some traits of the Neolithic Southwest Asian ‘skull cults’ originated in the Middle Palaeolithic, while their defining distinction – primary burials in domestic settings versus secondary burials in public areas – emerged during the Mid-Upper Palaeolithic, notably at Pavlov (Czechia). The diversification of ‘skull cults’ accelerated after the Last Glacial Maximum amid large-scale population movements. In the Early Holocene, as agricultural households developed, these rituals were gradually replaced by new symbolic media such as pottery, figurines, and stamps – the so-called Neolithic Package. These portable ‘simulacra’ redefined representations of the body, house, and community. Although ‘skull cults’ disappeared, their symbolic legacy persisted, transmitted through material proxies that carried shared ideological codes across post-LGM Europe and the Near East.
The hypothesis of a First Epidemiological Transition postulates that, with the advent of the Neolithic, the proximity to domesticated animals would have increased exposure to zoonotic pathogens, whereas the population growth and concentration that often follows the introduction of agriculture would have led to a high rate of transmission of infectious diseases. In this paper, we will synthesize the history of research on this issue. We will then use recently published data, coming mostly from aDNA studies in Central and Western Eurasia, to test the hypothesis. We find out that the hypothesis is mostly supported by the new evidence.
Lapa da Bugalheira is a natural cave with a funerary context dated to the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic period. This cave was excavated in the 1940s, and in 2019. The aim of this work is the osteological study of the human remains recovered from both interventions that correspond to the same funerary context. This assemblage of human bones corresponds to a minimum of 35 individuals, 24 adults and 11 non-adults. The prevalence of pathological conditions is low, and they include oral, traumatic, infectious, degenerative and congenital ones. This research confirms that the re-examination and study of old collections are an essential contribution to our knowledge of past populations.
