The cultural and natural processes shaping archaeological sites on land have been studied extensively in a variety of terrestrial environments and landscapes. This resulted in a basic model of cultural and natural accretion and depletion processes. In marine archaeology, shipwreck cultural and natural formation processes are quite well-researched and presented as basic models. This is not the case, however, for coastal and submerged settlements, and harbours, implicitly assumed to undergo processes identical to shipwrecks. Building on the wealth of data from the 'natural laboratory' of the Carmel coast in the Mediterranean, we present an expanded basic model for shipwreck formation processes and new basic models for coastal and submerged settlements, and harbours. These may guide detailed, location-specific, future research.
Recent underwater surveys in north-west Saudi Arabia identified 75 submerged heritage sites, including eight shipwrecks and two harbours. One harbour was identified in a sheltered bay facing the fort and settlement of al-Muwaylih, an important stop on the Egyptian Hajj route since the medieval period. Located about 40 km north of modern Duba, the site received grain shipments from Egypt and supplied passing vessels, as noted by travellers in the 18th-19th centuries. The survey documented an anchorage including four stone anchors, one of which represents the second recorded in the Red Sea attributable to the Indo-Arab type.
This study presents natural and anthropogenic processes that have affected the Antikythera shipwreck site (Greece), dated to the 1st century BCE. The research combines archival work with new archaeological data and micro-geoarchaeological analyses, including Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Archaeological excavations indicate the presence of more than one contemporary shipwreck with similar cargoes resting over clearly defined areas on the seabed. Landslides triggered by storms and tectonic events partially covered the site, along with a growing aragonite crust. We identified a lithification process driven by the transformation of aragonite into calcite, possibly induced by sediment compaction during seismic activity, groundwater, and bacterial activity. The reconstruction of these formation processes helps to identify unexcavated archaeological areas and provides contextual information for finds recovered in past excavations (1900, 1976). A holistic view of site formation processes from shipbuilding to excavation is presented, expanding geoarchaeological applications for the study of shipwrecks.
Albeit being among the most significant market segments in the Roman world, many questions still remain about ceramic roofing materials and the mechanisms that regulated their trade. It seems clear that in the Roman Republican and Imperial Periods, most tiles circulated through different forms of maritime transport; however, few of these cargoes so far detected in the Mediterranean basin have been studied with a holistic approach. This study examines the potential of a more integrated research method that combines epigraphic analysis along with morphological and archaeometric studies and careful consideration of archaeological contexts related to shipwrecks, production facilities, storage and redistribution sites.
The NEOM underwater archaeological surveys conducted in north-western Saudi Arabia represent the first systematic survey in the Red Sea. Using a methodology based primarily on diver inspections, the project documented 65 artefact scatters, eight pre-19th-century shipwrecks, and two harbours. Two shipwrecks are especially significant: one, dating to 4th-7th centuries CE, shows an exceptionally preserved cargo, and another dating to the 15th century, is unique for this period. These discoveries provide important insights into sailing routes, harbour systems, and trade from the earliest centuries CE to the 19th century, while allowing for the evaluation of underwater survey methods in the Red Sea.
The 'Varmb & aring;dan Wreck', located outside Porkkala in the Finnish archipelago, was discovered more than 50 years ago. Recent research has identified the ship as the Swedish warship Falken, built in Stockholm in 1631, and which sank in 1651. During 2025, the wreck was re-surveyed by diving archaeologists from the Finnish Heritage Agency and the Centre for Maritime Studies at Stockholm University. This paper reports the research background, identification, recent archaeological survey, and preliminary hull reconstruction of a shipwreck. The aim has been to examine what we can learn from the site in terms of ship construction, sculptural embellishment and life onboard. This will provide a basis for further archaeological fieldwork and research.
In 2024, a geophysical and optical survey west of Karaburun Lighthouse (Black Sea, Turkiye) tested for shipwreck remains potentially associated with two Archaic wooden anchors from Philea and documented seabed disturbance in the reported recovery sector. Dual-frequency side-scan sonar (300/900 kHz) mapped 25.7 km & sup2; and detected 17 anomalies. Ground-truthing with a remotely operated vehicle classified all targets as natural features or modern material, including one modern steel wreck. In this shallow, high-energy nearshore setting, extensive trawl scarring and localised sediment disruption consistent with aggregate extraction provide a georeferenced baseline for targeted follow-up and monitoring.
Mediterranean shipwrecks from 1500-500 BC seldom preserve wooden elements, and previous scholarship has favoured construction techniques over materials. This paper introduces a novel methodology to understand human-environment interactions in shipbuilding and repair. Using chorological data to examine the overlap of natural ranges of tree species used to construct ships, we identify new and evocative narratives of maritime life in the pre-Classical Mediterranean. Local wood was often used to construct ships, although sometimes it came from trade or recycling. This investigation forms part of the Practical Mariner Project's work package exploring the environmental foundations of sea-journeys: constructing and repairing ships.
Everyday merchant schooners in the 19th century were essential to Britain's industrial and imperial systems. This paper explores the shipwreck of the schooner Ocean. This site is an opportunity to set out an approach to a ship's assemblage and show how an identity can be established for an unknown wreck. The ship's life is reconstructed from the results of metallurgical analysis, GPS survey, archival research, and photogrammetric modelling. The result is an archaeological record of the shipwreck, and an appreciation of the ship as an assemblage that encompasses more than just the timber remains embedded in the sandbank.
