This study examines childhood and adulthood diets in selected individuals from the Iron Age LejasbitÄni cemetery population in Latvia (7thâ10th centuries CE). Bone samples for isotope analysis were collected from 12 adult individuals; six had previously available isotope data from M1 root dentine. Bone samples from two non-adult individuals of the chronologically later Liv culture were included for preliminary comparison. Results showed that the LejasbitÄni bone carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) values were among the lowest in the region, suggesting a diet dominated by terrestrial C3-based resources with low-trophic-level animal protein. Unlike dentine data, bone δ15N values were not significantly different between gender groups, indicating a more homogeneous adulthood diet. Higher bone δ15N values were not always consistent with rich grave inventories, suggesting no clear correlation between social status and diet. Comparison of bone and dentine values revealed a statistically significant shift towards lower δ15N and higher δ13C values in adulthood compared to childhood, indicating significant dietary change across the life course. Four out of five individuals with usable isotope data from both tissues showed a decrease in δ15N values, and all five showed an increase in δ13C values between childhood (dentine) and adulthood (bone), respectively. These results represent only a small group, and further research is necessary to explore childhood-to-adulthood dietary transitions and links between access to resources and grave goods in the LejasbitÄni population.
The earliest towns in the territory of Estonia were founded in the 13th century. Their populations were multi-ethnic: in addition to the German merchants and artisans who dominated urban life, these towns were also inhabited by people of local origin as well as Scandinavians. The results of archaeological excavations indicate that in the second and third quarters of the 13th century, settlers of Rusâ origin from Pskov took up residence in the towns of Tartu, Viljandi, and Tallinn. In all of these towns, the Pskovians lived on the outskirts, in their own district. Numerous archaeological remains have been uncovered demonstrating that the Pskovians were engaged in the production of pottery in Tartu, Tallinn, and Viljandi, and in the manufacture of glass beads in Tartu and Tallinn. These settlers were permanent residents of the towns rather than temporary visitors. By the 14th century at the latest, the Pskovians had assimilated into the local urban population. In the 15th century, Tartu was home to the St Georgeâs Orthodox Church, which belonged to Novgorodian merchants, and to the Pskoviansâ Church of St Nicholas; Tallinn likewise had a St Nicholas Orthodox Church belonging to merchants from Novgorod. These merchant churches are not connected with the Pskovian settlements that existed in these towns in the 13th century.
Earlier research considered northern inland Fennoscandia a vast, empty place, where the southern men went to hunt and perhaps trade for furs with the nomadic locals. Most of the precious archaeological finds were interpreted as being either from a burial or a cache made by such a southern visitor. If these precious finds were interpreted to have belonged to the locals, they were thought to be made from inferior materials. A total of 71 convex brooches and their find contexts from northeastern inland Fennoscandia (northern Sweden, northern Finland, and northwestern Russia) are analysed in this paper to determine whether their use and materials differ from those found in southern Fennoscandia. Most of the brooches have been discovered in northern Sweden, with large hoard contexts dominating the assemblage. The number of brooches gradually decreases towards the east and they are distributed relatively evenly among burials, settlement sites, and stray finds. The analysis indicates that no lower-quality convex brooches appear to have been produced specifically for trade in the north, as the analysed brooches seem similar to their southern counterparts. Almost none of the brooches were found in pairs, which suggests a different manner of use and dress compared to the southwestern fashion. Although the brooches travelled to these northern areas, the associated fashion and intended way of use did not. The northern inland communities adopted these decorative elements but adapted them to their own purposes. These prestigious brooches served in the north both as decorative and practical components of dress and as offerings fit for the gods.
The article examines the types of crafts practised in Estonian villages during the 12thâ14th centuries and whether village crafts were affected by the conquest and Christianisation of Estonia by German and Danish crusaders in the first half of the 13th century. The study is based on craftÂrelated finds (tools, semiÂfinished products, and production waste) collected from twelve village sites dating to the period in question. In order to place these village finds into a broader context, they are compared with corresponding material recovered from four contemporaneous strongholds, as well as from the occupational layers of Tallinn, Tartu, and Viljandi towns dating to the 13thâ14th centuries. More than ten times as many craftÂrelated finds were retrieved from strongholds of the 12th century and the first half of the 13th century than from village sites of the 12thâ14th centuries. The assemblages from the strongholds are also more diverse than those from the villages. Likewise, the finds from urban contexts contain a markedly greater quantity and variety of craftÂrelated material than those from rural settlements. Finds from village sites in Estonia dating between 1100 and 1400 indicate that villages functioned primarily as units of agricultural production. The archaeological evidence points only to householdÂlevel craft production intended for selfÂsufficiency. Prior to the conquest, strongholds served as the principal centres of craft production in the Estonian territory, while following the conquest the bulk of craft output was produced in towns.
Supplementary online data include Table 1 detailing the radiocarbon dates associated with Typical Comb Ware in Latvia in the research literature
Supplementary online data include Table 1 detailing the radiocarbon dates associated with Typical Comb Ware in Latvia in the research literature.
PskovÂ-style earthenware was widely used in Estonia from the 11th to the 18th centuries, and it can be divided into six typoÂ-chronological types. The aim of this article is to examine the distribution of PskovÂ-style earthenware types 1â4 in Estonia from the 11th to the 15th centuries. This type of pottery reached Estonia, specifically Tartu and areas bordering the Pskov Land, around the period of 1030â1061, when Tartu was a stronghold of the Grand Princes of Kyiv. A distinct variant of PskovÂ-style earthenware, characteristic of the second half of the 11th cenÂtury and the 12th century, spread in limited quantities, mainly in southeastern Estonia. In the 13th century, this type of pottery spread widely and over a broader area in Estonia, primarily in eastern Estonia. This was related to the presence of Novgorodians and Pskovians in the hillforts of Tartu (1223â1224) and Viljandi (1223), and later to the arrival of craftsmen from Pskov in Tartu and Viljandi in the 1230s and 1240s. In the 14thâ15th centuries, this type of pottery spread throughout mainland Estonia, except in western Estonia. The PskovÂ-style ceramics from these two centuries represent the Livonian variant of this ceramic tradition and were likely produced locally. The use of PskovÂ-style earthenware in Estonia decreased to a minimum during the first half of the 16th century.
The emergence of Typical Comb Ware pottery, marking the beginning of the Middle Neolithic, is currently dated in Latvia to approximately 4100 BCE. This is several centuries earlier than the onset of this phenomenon in other regions, including those believed to be the origin of Typical Comb Ware influence. This discrepancy is implausible, and this paper explores the reaÂsons behind it. The article compiles all published dates associated with the beginning of the Middle Neolithic and Typical Comb Ware in Latvia. The evaluation of the data shows that most dates previously connected with this phase cannot be definitively associated with Typical Comb Ware material culture, or are affected by other issues, such as dietary offsets. It is proposed that the boundary for the beginning of Typical Comb Ware in Latvia should be more closely aligned with current understandings of the dating of this phase elsewhere in northeastern Europe and should be set at 3900â3800 BCE at the earliest.
Strontium isotope analysis has been used in archeology for about 40 years to study the provÂenance and mobility of ancient humans and animals. The interpretation of strontium isotope compositions in archeological materials requires a reference isotopic baseline map that delineates the geographical variation of bioavailable strontium. This paper introduces the first full map of bioavailable strontium in Estonia, based on the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of bioavailable strontium collected from 84 rodents and snails across 38 locations. The results were compared with data that also include larger wild and domestic mammals, to see if their data can be used as a reference in future studies. The analysis identified two clearly distinct isotopic areas in relation to Estoniaâs bedrock composition: (1) coastal and central Estonia, including the West Estonian archipelago, where bedrock is composed of Ordovician and Silurian carbonate rocks and characterized by bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr ratios between 0.7094 and 0.7147; and (2) southern Estonia, located predominantly on Devonian sandstone bedrock, with 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7147â0.7185. The analysis also showed that when stricter statistical methods were applied, the dataset that included larger wild and domestic mammals gave similar results. Hence, in Estonia, our expanded dataset can be cautiously used to provide context in areas where rodent data are missing. The baseline map refines and expands our current knowledge about the distribution of bioavailable strontium in the Baltic Sea region.
At first glance, the Comb Ware culture â or rather, cultures â appears to be one of the best studied Stone Age cultures in the eastern Baltic region; however, this is far from the truth. A number of questions remain regarding its eastern and southern borders, chronology, and internal divisions. One of the main difficulties significantly complicating the understanding of this cultural phenomenon is the diversity of terminology, which has developed and transÂformed differently across the regions of its distribution over the more than a century of research. While the Typical stage is understood more or less similarly, opinions vary regarding its later phases. In this paper, we outline the distribution area of the main inventory set related to the Comb Ware cultures, analyse the most reliable dates from sites in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, describe the main hypotheses on the origins of this cultural complex, and reveal gaps in the research. Our objective is to initiate a discussion on the criteria for distinguishing Comb Ware cultures across the entire geographical and chronological range of this phenom enon, and to set a starting point for further broader study.
Archaeobotany is currently an underutilised discipline in Estonian archaeological research. This paper sheds light on the current state of archaeobotanical research in Estonia by analysing the spatial and temporal distribution of archaeobotanical sampling across three time periods: until 1980, 1981â1999, and 2000â2024. We outline the usages of archaeobotany and the beneÂfits that the analysis of plant remains can offer in acquiring a deeper understanding of archaeÂological questions. While archaeobotanical sampling is a common practice in many countries, the discipline is struggling in Estonia due to a lack of researchers, laboratories, samples, and, ultimately, awareness of its value in understanding the past. In this article, we show how sediment sampling patterns have led to a spatially and temporally unequal archaeobotanical knowledge within Estonia. We emphasise the need for compulsory sampling during archaeÂological excavations, combined sampling for macro and potentially microbotanical remains, as well as sampling from different contexts besides sediment, such as dental calculus, pottery food crust, and surfaces and pores of tools.
Sheet pendants are ChristianÂsymbolic metal plate pendants that were wide spread in Estonia from the 11th to the 17th century, with at least 1115 items found. This article focuses on Estonian sheet pendants from the 11th to the 13th century, aiming to refine their dating. Among the 222 known Estonian sheet pendants from this period, 30 can be confidently dated to the 11th century, two to the 11th century or the very beginning of the 12th century, one to the 11thâ12th centuries, 159 to the 13th century, and 30 to the 12thâ13th centuries. No sheet pendants have been found in Estonia that can be exclusively dated to the 12th century. It remains unclear whether sheet pendants were not worn as jewellery in Estonia during the 12th century or whether this chronological distribution of the sheet pendants under study reflects the current state of research, methodological issues in archaeology, or historical events. The article proposes several hypotheses to explain this chronological distribution. Future research will be required to determine whether any of these hypotheses are correct.
The Varbola hillfort is one of the largest prehistoric fortifications in the eastern Baltic. Although it stands out as a major political centre in literary sources from the 13th century, and the archaeological record points to a prototown with almost a hundred households, its location has puzzled scholars for nearly a century. While Varbola has been claimed to be situated in a peripheral area not suited for the emergence of a power centre, this notion of 'peripherality' has not been examined in a measurable way to allow for comparison with other strongholds. The article explores this issue by employing a GISbased methodology inspired by site catchment analysis and quantifying the amount of fertile soils, known archaeological settlement sites, burial places and early modern manors around Late Iron Age forts in northwestern Estonia within four different radii. Results demonstrate that Varbola is actually 'average' in terms of centrality, rather than 'peripheral'. As Varbola is located at the edge of the area covered by the large Estonian list of the Liber Census Daniae, an important 13thcentury source for settlement history, it can be argued that perceptions of Varbola's peripherality are influenced by the 'edge effect'. Analysis of historical sources suggests that Varbola is more likely to have been a power centre than a trading hub, and its emergence might be related to the Lode magnate family.
Sheet pendants made of silver or copper alloy were worn in Estonia from the 10th to the 17th century. This type of jewelry spread to Estonia from Scandinavia and was also used in Finland, Karelia, Latvia, Lithuania, in the areas inhabited by the Baltic tribes in northeastern Poland, and to a lesser extent in northwestern Russia. The symbols depicted on the sheet pendants are Christian. The three dominant symbols are the cross, representing the Christian faith; a boss or circle, symbolizing God the Father; and five bosses arranged in the shape of crosses, rep resenting the Five Holy Wounds of Christ. The 10th-13thcentury sheet pendants include looped squares, which are symbols of St. John the Baptist. The 13thcentury circular sheet pendants have a design formed by three volutes, symbolizing the Holy Trinity, triskele, swastika, pentagram, and star. Trapezoidal sheet pendants from the 13th century may have been intended as axe shapes, possibly related to the cult of St. Olaf. The meaning of the volutes and interlace patterns on the trapezoidal sheet pendants is unknown. Recognizable Christian sym bols on them include the cross of St. Peter and an anchor. In the 15th-17th centuries, new designs include the Maltese cross and the Tshaped cross of St. Anthony. Sheet pendants not only manifested the wearer's Christian faith but also expressed specific central themes and concepts of Christianity. The pendants reflect themes such as God the Father, the birth and crucifixion of Christ, the Holy Trinity, and the sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist.
Horsemeat consumption has been one of the most intriguing questions about ancient dietary practices. Zooarchaeological materials from the Late Bronze Age in Estonia (850-500 BCE) contain high proportions of the domestic horse (Equus caballus) compared to subsequent periods, leading to debates about the culturaleconomic features of eating horsemeat during this period. One of the assemblages rich in horse remains is from the Iru fortified settlement in northern Estonia, first studied by Kalju Paaver in the 1960s. This article revisits the Iru zoo archaeological material with the aim of clarifying the significance of horsemeat con sumption among Iru people and expanding the discussion about the Bronze Age horse culture in prehistoric Estonia. Several findings confirmed the consumption of horsemeat. First, the tax onomic analysis showed a high proportion of horse specimens among livestock remains, contextually interpreted as kitchen and food refuse. Second, despite the horse specimens coming mainly from the cranium (teeth) and body parts with low meat yield (distal elements of the limbs), the evidence of butchering, especially for elements representing meaty body parts, attests to various food procurement activities. Third, the presence of juvenile specimens in the material refers to the culling of young animals, even though there is no direct evidence of utilising juvenile meat. The study results are discussed in the frame of contemporaneous material from Estonia and elsewhere, touching upon the extent of horsemeat consumption, the tools used for butchering, and the possible origins of the Bronze Age horse culture in Estonia.
In 2022, a simple shaft-hole stone axe was found in the village of Nagli, Rezekne district in eastern Latvia. In contrast to hundreds of other simple shaft-hole axes, this specimen - representing the so-called almond-shaped type - is distinguished by the fragment of a wooden haft preserved in the shaft hole. This provided a unique opportunity to date the axe: the Nagli artefact is only the second Bronze Age shaft-hole stone axe that has been directly radiocarbon-dated in the eastern Baltic area. The result, 780-540 cal BC, confirms the typochronological conclusion that almond-shaped axes were used in Latvia in the Late Bronze Age (1100-500 BC). However, it cannot confirm or refute their continued use in the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-1 BC). Analysis of the haft revealed that it was made of oak (Quercus sp.), distinguishing it from previously analysed Bronze Age stone and metal axes in the eastern Baltic region, where ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) was often used.
