This article provides insight into a question which continues to be debated, namely, whether to call the means of communication used by the Latvians of eastern Latvia, or Latgale, a language or a dialect. Different views on this question are discussed as well as the various terms the Latgale's Latvians use to describe their speech. A classification of Latgalic subdialects according to their phonetic and morphological characteristics is also provided.The question of what constitutes a language as opposed to a dialect is discussed in many places around the world. Linguists tend to define language as a standardised code, which has a spoken and written form, while defining a dialect as a spoken language variety lacking a standardised written form. The concepts dialect and language often have a political shade to them. Dialects can also be defined as different varieties of the same language, which have undergone unique development in different geographic locations or have ended up in dissimilar extralinguistic situations (for more on this see Hoekstra 2003; Haugen 1966; Rudz & imacr;te 1964:13). In this sense, the linguistic situation in Latvia's eastern region of Latgale is unique. It has largely been determined by extralinguistic factors. For Latgalian this question is complicated by the historical circumstances of Latgale where a separate written tradition has existed for nearly 300 years, which only began to be standardised at the beginning of the 20th century, while its spoken form has not been similarly standardised even now.
Studies on linguistic diversification are mainly based on large databases, in which internal or dialectal variation is often not taken into account. In this work, we intend to focus on one language, Breton, to observe how diversification operates at the level of vernacular varieties. To achieve this, we have applied a dialectometric approach to data taken from the Nouvel Atlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne (Le D & ucirc; 2001) and analyzed the patterns present in the distribution of linguistic distance across the dialectal network. The results reveal multiple temporal layers that echo the period of the emergence of new Brittonic dialects in the early Middle Ages.
This paper explores evidentials in various dialects of Turkish spoken across Anatolia, scrutinizing their semantic domains, diversity, and evolution paths. The data for analysis consists of fieldwork transcriptions, literary sources, and naturalistic recordings of everyday language. Adopting the definition of evidentiality as the coding of information sources on the proposition, we identified the items as denoting inference and hearsay under indirectivity based on the corpus. Findings show that certain lexical items developed into semi-grammatical evidentials via grammaticalization while the future and postterminal suffixes evolved into grammatical markers by interpreting existing items. The analysis also highlights the distribution of these evidentials, noting that while some remain confined to specific lin-guistic boundaries (isoglosses), others gain broader currency across dialects, pro-pelled by the influences of social media, TV shows, and migratory movements. Consequently, this paper sheds light on the dynamic paths of evidential evolution providing evidence from Turkish dialects, offering insights into the interplay between language change and socio-cultural factors.
This article outlines the origins and development of early American English phonology between the 17th and 18th centuries. Contrary to Trudgill (2008) and Mufwene (2008), who replace the terms 'koineization' and 'koine' by 'dialect mixture', I see the latter as the inevitable result of interdialectal contact between speakers of the same language while I consider koineization to be a long, primarily oral process, the outcome of which is the production of a koine. However, in the case of colonial British North America, I argue that there was not only one American koine, as has frequently been advanced, but several.Furthermore, I posit the existence of a continuum of registers within each koine ranging from the disparitary (highly formal) to the paritary (highly informal / nonstandard). Although the emphasis has always been on the uniformity and standard nature of early American colonial English, I consider this disparitary register to be especially the result of literacy and the formal teaching of standard English. Koineization, on the other hand, is primarily the consequence of the steady, intergenerational oral transmission of paritary registers, that is, the colonial contact vernaculars. If so, the contemporary American dialects are the product of non-standard linguistic continuity since colonial times and beyond. This view contradicts aspects of Dillard's hypotheses (Dillard 1972; 1973; 1975; 1980; 1992).A combination of theoretical and methodological approaches are employed in this paper involving historical phonology, dialectology, creolistics and sociolinguistics.
In the absence of a generally accepted etymology, or other acceptable explanation, of the name Fleance, a character in Shakespeare's Macbeth, this paper suggests an origin on the basis of Gaelic dialectology. The solution suggested not only solves a longstanding literary problem but, additionally, uncovers an original underlying irony in pre-Holinshed sources.
The article presents the Spatial AidasData Infrastructure for the Lithuanian Language (SDI4LTL), developed by Lithuanian geolinguists on the basis of the Esri ArcGIS platform, which is used for the optimisation of the processes of linguistic spatial data collection, analysis, and sharing. SDI4LTL will ensure systematic monitoring of linguistic and sociolinguistic processes in Lithuania, which are expected to change intensively due to various socioeconomic, demographic, and geopolitical factors. To reveal the potential of SDI4LTL, Geographical Information System (GIS)-based tools and methods are used to analyse the data of perceptual dialectology: 4,022 gymnasium students' responses to an online questionnaire on the use of the dialect and their perception of the dialect user (i.e., more than 12,000 associations of a dialect speaker) were analysed.The geospatial analysis identified the areas of highest and lowest dialecticity in Lithuania, the degree of prestige of the local language variant used by the younger generation, the values of the dialect-speaking associations, and the correlation of the results.
The subject of this study is a particular type of compound preposition found in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. The compound consists of a simple preposition followed by a noun which it governs, the noun in question often pertaining to human perception or activity. The membership of this 'nominal' prepositional class, as will be seen, is quite extensive, so that the category in question, as well as refining the reach, and extending enormously the range, of prepositional activity, adds a separate, often somewhat picturesque, dimension to syntax in the languages in question.
This article discusses the innovations that have arisen during the last several centuries in three pluralizing morphemes in the Basque dialect of Labourd (continental Basque Country). First, I will present the characteristics of Basque auxiliary and synthetic verbs so that we may better understand the three developments that I will then address and analyze: 1) a pluralizer used with transitive verbs that has moved to present tense intransitive verbs by analogy with its occurrence in past tense forms, driven by phonetic similarity; 2) a pluralizer that shows a complex development in its grammar, time and geography, and that we find in the continental Basque Country, but also in the peninsular Basque Country; and 3) a pluralizer that arose in verbs with dative and that came to be used in the transitive verb without dative jakin 'to know' only in Labourd.
The article reviews the possibilities of applying the web application Gabmap developed by researchers at the University of Groningen to the analysis of vowel formant data based on the results of the study of one Lithuanian dialect. The Western Auk & scaron;taitian dialect of Kaunas is traditionally considered the basis of Standard Lithuanian. The study was based on the data of 18 male speakers from six dialectal localities representing distinctive areas. The normalized mean values of the first two vowel formants (F1, F2) were analyzed in certain word positions illustrating distinguishing features, which were processed using Gabmap tools designed for analyzing numeric sequences.Gabmap tools most beneficial for the researchers of experimental phonetics along with the aspects of their application to research were emphasized in the study; it also underlined those tools the use of which requires additional application of other conventional methods of experimental sound analysis, such as sound spectrum analysis, planimetric models, etc. In the study of the Western Auk & scaron;taitian of Kaunas, the Gabmap analysis confirmed significant horizontal variation within the dialect area and foregrounded the most tightly related sites sharing the greatest number of common features in their vocalism.
In this article, the focus is on the pivotal role of speakers in shaping language dynamics and dialectal stability, particularly within the context of dialectal variation. It is evident that language is intricately tied to human experience, serving as a tool for navigation, problem-solving, and social interaction. This article posits that understanding the interplay between language dynamics and stability of dialects requires a nuanced consideration of speakers and their practical relationships with the world as well as their linguistic mental representations. People are not passive recipients of language; rather, they actively engage with it in various contexts, adapting to new situations and influencing linguistic change. Through empirical examples from German dialectology, the article illustrates how speakers' interactions with their environment shape language evolution. Overall, the article aims to provide insight into the role of speakers in driving linguistic change and maintaining linguistic conventions within dialectal contexts. By examining the practical relationships between speakers and their environment, it contributes to the development of a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of language variation and evolution considering linguistic representations.
Jooshani dialect belongs to the Jooshan village, one of the villages of Golbaf town in Kerman city, Iran. The study tries to linguistically investigate and analyze the phonological processes of Jooshani. It also tries to present some grammatical and lexical features of this dialect. Here, Jooshani features are compared with those of Standard Persian (SP) and Kermani. The data have been gathered during nine years by one of the authors living in Jooshan and through close relations with the informants, most of whom were old, illiterate, and untraveled. The data are presented in three main parts: phonological system and phonological processes (metathesis, insertion, elision, lenition, spirantization, alternation, assimilation and devoicing), noun word-formation, and lexicon. The results obtained in each part showed that there are considerable differences between this language variety and the Standard Persian in all of the three above-mentioned parts.
The primary and direct source material for describing phonological dialectal differences is represented by linguistic data found in charters. The source value of the data in particular charters for historical linguistics, however, may vary greatly. This is especially true for the earliest attested era, the early Old Hungarian period, which lasted from 895 to 1350. My study deals with the usability of linguistic records of the early Old Hungarian period. In this period the data found in charters are mainly proper names: place names and personal names, accordingly my examples are also of this category.
In this paper, new quantitative methods were applied to elucidate the geographical distribution of Japanese dialects. (1) Regional differences (individual differences) of usage rate of standard language at each locality in GAJ (Grammar Atlas of Japanese Dialects) were dealt with. (2) In addition to the railway distance from Tokyo to each locality, the walking distance from the railway stations to the survey localities was measured and used as the "railway-walking distance". (3) Using a scatter-plot in what is called a "limestone cave model", the values on the axis of standard language usage were reversed, and the Japan Islands were divided into east and west according to their direction from Tokyo. It showed that the standard language usage rate and distance show a proportional relationship even at each locality (individual informant) value. (4) Focusing on the prefectures near Tokyo, the distance from Tokyo regulates the usage rate. From this, the rapid spread of standard language from modern Tokyo and influence of railway can be ascertained. It was found that the phenomena pointed out by the average values by prefectures of vocabulary items in LAJ are valid to the data for each locality (individual) of GAJ.
In the Lithuanian and Latvian languages, forms of adjective degrees do not have a common etymological basis. The New Curonian (Kuresnieku) language which is a relatively new Baltic geolect has preserved a fairly distinct archaic layer of phonetics and grammar, where one can look not only for the archaisms of the western dialects of the Latvian language but also for traces of the substrate of Old Curonian. Although synthetic forms of the degrees of adjectives with the suffix -& amacr;k- are used in the current Latvian language area they are almost unknown in New Curonian. The forms of the comparative degree are made with the particle juo and an adjective of the positive degree. Analytical forms with the pronoun visu and the pronominal form of an adjective express the superlative degree. In the western Latvian and Lithuanian dialects and the Livonian language in Latvia, the relics of the analytical forms of the comparative and superlative degree are recorded in written sources and rarely in modern spoken language. Since a large part of the western dialects of the Lithuanian and Latvian languages take up the former territory of the old tribe, it may be assumed that the analytical forms of adjective degrees are possibly a sign of the substrate of Old Curonian.
In the first half of the twentieth century, Irish continued to be spoken as a community language in Ballybacon, south-west Tipperary, Ireland. A commission, Coimisi & uacute;n na Gaeltachta, was appointed in 1925 by the three-year-old Free State government to designate Gaeltacht (Irish-speaking area) boundaries and to recommend social, economic and educational improvements therein. Ballybacon (Baile U & iacute; Bh & eacute;ac & aacute;in), was part of its remit and the commission deemed it to be 66% Irish-speaking; as the government had set an 80% threshold for full Gaeltacht status, Ballybacon was deemed to be a breac-Ghaeltacht or 'partly Irish-speaking district'.The recording work of Albert Doegen (1877-1967) is discussed with particular reference to a single Ballybacon native, James Lyons or S & eacute;amas & Oacute; Liath & aacute;in (1877-1934), who is placed in his linguistic, geographical and social context and in the context of state policy towards Irish-speaking districts.The recordings made of his speech by Doegen have been transcribed and translated.
Abstract The study of dialectal microvariation in spoken Spanish faces challenges due to the absence of an adequate morpho-syntactically annotated and parsed corpus. Therefore, this article introduces a novel technique, a game-based approach, for creating resources for non-standard Spanish language varieties. The article provides an overview of the progress in designing three Games With A Purpose (GWAPs) prototypes, to wit, Agentes, Tesoros, and Anotatlón. These games aim to facilitate the confirmation and correction of the morpho-syntactic tagging task of the COSER-AP (Corpus Oral y Sonoro del Español Rural-Anotado y Parseado, ‘Annotated and Parsed Audible Corpus of Spoken Rural Spanish’). First, the article presents the methodology used to build the games. Second, it offers a detailed description of the implemented Game Design Elements (GDEs). Finally, the article discusses the results of a pilot evaluation that assesses player enjoyment and the linguistic accuracy. Findings are promising, with Tesoros and Anotatlón demonstrating high levels of enjoyment. Additionally, Agentes proves to be effective in collecting a large number of annotations. The linguistic accuracy also shows potential benefits of gamified approaches in linguistic annotation tasks. However, it also emphasizes the importance of considering regional in player assessment and training them in multidialectal contexts.
Prepositional form and function in Irish, as in other Modern Celtic languages, are topics of much significance. In Modern Irish numerous simple prepositions not only form compounds with possessive forms of personal pronouns but additionally marshal an impressive array of ‘conjugated’ forms corresponding to the various grammatical persons. Prepositions also play a crucial role in indicating aspect and are involved in passive/ reflexive roles with the verbal noun. This paper offers an overview of the functioning of a selection of important prepositions in the language and provides examples by way of illustration.
The traditional focus of (German) dialectology has been on spatial patterns observed in phonology. However, dialectometric approaches have generated interest in exploring geographical structures in other linguistic subsystems, including morphology. Building on this research, this study investigates geolinguistic patterns of dialect morphology in contemporary Austrian dialects using aggregative and non-aggregative measures, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Multidimensional Scaling (MDS), and Cluster Analysis (CA). Data are based on a comprehensive dialect survey with 163 speakers from 40 locations across Austria, examining 120 linguistic variables related to inflection. The results show a clear geographic structuring of morphological variation, which significantly differs from traditional dialect classifications. The analysis of the linguistic basis of the geographical patterns suggests that these differences might be ascribed to methodological factors and language change. Methodologically, it is also demonstrated that the findings of aggregative and non-aggregative methods are complementary, not contradictory. Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of integrating diverse methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of geographical patterns in dialect variation.
Spanish speakers use a great diversity of terms to refer to Pisum sativum, from the better known guisante and arveja, to other less common forms such as chicharo, bisalto, pesol, presules, pitos, titos, pedrolos, manganos, garavanzos, frejoles, etc. This work analyzes the great diversity of names that the species Pisum sativum receives in Spanish and it does it through the Spanish geolinguistic atlases and the lexicons of the cultured norms of the main cities of the Hispanic world. Through this analysis we will try to explain the reason for this diversity with the objective of understanding if this variety is due to a question of synonymy or to a confusion between species of legumes or between varieties within the Pisum species itself. We will explain that the history of the denominations of the pea, and of the legumes in general, is marked by its confusion from the beginnings of language; a confusion that comes motivated mainly by the similarity that possess all the species that conform the family Papilionoideae and that causes that the speakers confuse in many occasions some plants with others..
