Athletes’ psychological readiness is essential not only for performance development but also for successful career transitions beyond sport. However, many young athletes tend to prioritize performance outcomes over long-term career planning. This study aimed to examine the mindset, resilience, and future career orientation of young professional badminton athletes within the context of dual career development. A descriptive quantitative design was employed involving 19 athletes selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire based on Growth Mindset Theory, Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), and the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA). The instrument consisted of 25 dichotomous items (Yes/No) with good reliability (KR-20 = 0.82). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage). The findings suggested high levels of growth mindset (96.0%) and resilience and self-regulation (95.0%) among the participating athletes, indicating strong persistence and adaptive learning behaviors. In contrast, career awareness and future orientation, although still very high (86.7%), showed lower scores than the other dimensions, suggesting a gap in long-term career preparation. In conclusion, the participating athletes appeared to demonstrate positive psychological characteristics related to performance development; however, greater emphasis on dual career support is needed. These findings highlight the potential value of integrating career planning and educational guidance into athlete development programs to support long-term career sustainability.
Basic Life Support (BLS) training in schools is crucial for improving bystander response to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. This study culturally adapted, expanded, and psychometrically validated a questionnaire to assess knowledge, attitudes, self-confidence, motivation, and intention regarding BLS performance and the use of an automated external defibrillator (AED) among secondary school students in Spain. A total of 317 secondary school students participated. The questionnaire included 15 multiple-choice items on knowledge and 16 on attitudes. Difficulty and discrimination indices were calculated for the knowledge items, while the attitude scale was analyzed using exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory (CFA) factor analysis. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega) and measurement invariance based on sex, educational level, and prior BLS/AED training were evaluated. Knowledge improved significantly following the intervention (from 7.83 ± 2.84 to 9.61 ± 2.57 correct answers; p < 0.05). EFA identified a four-factor structure (intention to perform CPR, self-confidence, positive motivation, and amotivation) explaining 76.15% of the variance, with satisfactory internal consistency (α and ω between 0.746 and 0.902). CFA confirmed the model with excellent fit indices (χ²/df = 1.26; RMSEA = 0.035; CFI = 0.967; TLI = 0.970; IFI = 0.975). The final questionnaire (CONACT-BLS) demonstrated adequate validity, reliability, and sensitivity to change. It represents a robust instrument for assessing knowledge and psychosocial factors related to BLS and AEDs among adolescents, thereby facilitating the evaluation of resuscitation programs in the school setting.
Collegiate sports programs rely on coordinated organizational support to sustain athlete participation across competitive levels. This study examined the implementation of four organizational components of a university Sports Development Program and their relationships with athlete participation among collegiate varsity student-athletes. A quantitative cross-sectional explanatory design was employed with 75 varsity student-athletes from basketball, volleyball, baseball, and softball at a public university in the Philippines. Data were collected using a researcher-developed 70-item questionnaire assessing recruitment and retention, benefits and incentives, sports facilities, equipment maintenance, and participation in local, regional, and national competitions. Descriptive statistics, Pearson product–moment correlation, and multiple linear regression were used. The organizational components were generally highly to very highly implemented. Athlete participation was very high at the local and regional levels and high at the national level. The organizational components were generally positively associated with participation, although the strength and significance of relationships varied across competitive levels. The regression model was significant, F(4, 70) = 8.425, p < .001, explaining 32.5% of the variance in overall athlete participation. Equipment maintenance was the only significant predictor (β = .487, p < .001). The findings suggest that equipment maintenance represents an important organizational area associated with athlete participation, while the broader systems perspective highlights the complementary roles of recruitment and retention, benefits and incentives, and sports facilities. The findings provide an empirical basis for strengthening collegiate Sports Development Programs through coordinated organizational planning and resource management.
Holistic student development in ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) educational contexts demands integrated approaches that simultaneously address physical literacy, nutrition literacy, and supportive play environments. This study aimed to develop and empirically validate an integrated physical literacy, nutrition literacy, and playground-based framework. A four-phase sequential mixed-methods design was applied, including expert consultation, document analysis, prototype development, and quantitative validation. Construct validation involved 1415 elementary students and was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, regression, and structural equation modeling. Students demonstrated high levels of holistic development (M = 78.2), physical literacy (M = 76.4), creativity in play (M = 74.3), and nutrition literacy (M = 72.1), with daily physical activity showing moderate levels (M = 68.9). All predictor variables were significantly associated with holistic student development (r = 0.69–0.77, p < 0.01), with creativity in play emerging as the strongest correlate. The findings provide robust empirical support for the integrated multidimensional framework as an integrated, culturally responsive model for enhancing children’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development.
This study adopts an exploratory qualitative design to analyze the effects of the Attitudinal Style emerging pedagogical model, alongside the implementation of self-regulated learning strategies, on the Basic Psychological Needs of university students enrolled in the bachelor’s degree in Human Movement Sciences. The research is framed within Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in motivation and learning. Data were collected using a set of open-ended questions as the primary data collection tool. A total of 76 university students (56 males and 20 females, aged 18 to 23 years) participated in the study. Results suggest that the Attitudinal Style model, through its emphasis on autonomy support and the promotion of self-regulated learning, may enhance students' Basic Psychological Needs, fostering a more inclusive and motivating educational environment
Adherence to physical exercise programs among adolescents with cardiometabolic risk is a complex phenomenon linked to individual, social, and contextual experiences. The aim of this study was to understand the experiences of adolescents with cardiometabolic risk who participated in two recreational football modalities, identifying barriers and facilitators associated with adherence or dropout. A qualitative interpretive study was conducted with 17 male adolescents aged 11 to 15 years who participated in a randomized controlled trial comparing two football training modalities designed to promote cardiometabolic health. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven adolescents who dropped out of the program or showed low adherence, and focus groups were conducted with ten highly adherent participants. Reflexive thematic analysis was carried out by the research team through an inductive, iterative, and reflexive process, strengthened by a systematic record of analytical decisions and critical discussions among researchers, which enabled the construction of three central themes. Logistical and contextual barriers, such as transportation, weather, schedules, and organizational changes, were perceived as obstacles to continuity. Support from coaches, peers, and families emerged as a facilitator of belonging and motivation. In addition, some participants associated small-sided games with greater active participation, perceived competence, and satisfaction. The findings suggest that adherence may not depend solely on sporting interest, but also on access conditions, social support, psychological safety, perceived competence, and enjoyment. Future interventions should be inclusive, feasible, and meaningful
Sports-academic reconciliation can be understood as the process through which athletes seek to combine their athletic routines with their educational paths. This study aimed to identify the association between the routines of university athletes and their academic performance across different sports. A quantitative, descriptive, and correlational cross-sectional design was adopted. A validated questionnaire was administered to 135 student-athletes. Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted, including Spearman’s correlation and the Kruskal–Wallis test. The results indicated that the Academic Performance Index showed no statistically significant association with the investigated variables, including academic period (ρ = 0.098, p = 0.265), commuting time (ρ = 0.050, p = 0.570), weekly leisure time (ρ = 0.028, p = 0.751), sleep time (ρ = 0.049, p = 0.576), and study time (ρ = 0.005, p = 0.956). Furthermore, no statistically significant differences were found in the Academic Performance Index among athletes engaged in individual, team, or both types of sports [H (2) = 1.655, p = 0.437]. The majority of participants practiced team sports and held part-time jobs. These findings suggest that sports participation does not negatively impact academic performance. On the contrary, athletic experience may contribute to development of skills such as time management, discipline, and resilience, which can positively influence academic trajectories. The study concludes that university sports should be valued not merely as a complement to academic life, but as a key component of students’ development, highlighting the need for structured support policies and targeted investments.
Workplace bullying is a significant organizational risk for sports education institutions. It can deplete employees’ psychological resources and weaken their organizational commitment, which may lead to an increase in quiet quitting. This study examined the levels of workplace bullying, organizational commitment, and quiet quitting among sports education employees. Additionally, the measurement properties of these three constructs and the relationships among them were evaluated. A total of 550 participants took part in this cross-sectional and correlational study. Data were collected using a 39-item, five-point Likert-type scale. There were 13 items in each dimension. Internal consistency was examined using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients. Confirmatory factor analysis based on weighted least squares estimation was conducted to assess construct validity. The mean scores were 2.92 ± 0.71 for workplace bullying, 3.17 ± 0.60 for organizational commitment, and 2.26 ± 0.67 for quiet quitting. The alpha coefficients ranged from 0.913 to 0.932. The three-factor model showed an excellent fit (χ²/df = 1.037; CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.997; RMSEA = 0.008; SRMR = 0.029). There is a positive relationship between workplace bullying and quiet quitting (r = 0.602; p < 0.001). The relationship between workplace bullying and organizational commitment is negative (r = −0.481; p < 0.001). A negative relationship was also found between organizational commitment and quiet quitting (r = −0.461; p < 0.001). All three scores varied by type of organization. Workers at sports clubs or educational centers experience higher levels of workplace bullying and quiet quitting. Organizational commitment, however, is lower among them. Only the quiet quitting score differed based on length of service. The findings indicate that quiet quitting is not merely an individual choice. Organizational conditions also play a role in this behavior.
Goalball, a Paralympic sport designed for people with visual impairments, has been studied mainly for its physical and social benefits, with little attention to subjective dimensions such as occupational identity, spirituality, beliefs, and values. This qualitative research, framed within the interpretive paradigm, analyzed the experiences of five athletes from the Biobío Region (Chile) through semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis. The results show that the practice of Goalball operates as a meaningful occupation that transforms limiting beliefs —moving from discouragement to autonomy and self-efficacy—, promotes values such as empathy, respect, cooperation, and resilience, and channels spiritual dimensions linked to life purpose and mental strength. Furthermore, the sport contributes to the construction of a positive occupational identity, acting as a mirror of personal and collective growth. However, structural tensions persist: discontinuity of public policies, political instrumentalization of disability, and a gap between the inclusive sports environment and other social contexts that limit the transfer of learning. From the perspective of Occupational Therapy and the Model of Human Occupation, it is concluded that Goalball not only favors identity reconstruction but also requires a collective approach aimed at transforming restrictive environments. Expanding the sample and conducting longitudinal follow-ups are recommended to deepen understanding of these processes.
Developing multicomponent agility through school-based activities that integrate multidirectional movement and object manipulation remains an important but insufficiently investigated area in physical education. This study aimed to examine the effect of small-ball-based physical activity on multicomponent agility in students aged 11-12 years and to determine whether the effects differed by initial agility level. This study employed a matched pretest-posttest control-group design with a 2 × 2 treatment-by-level arrangement. A total of 80 students aged 11-12 years participated. The intervention group participated in a small-ball game program for 6 weeks, with 3 sessions per week (18 sessions in total). The program incorporated running, changes of direction, acceleration, deceleration, coordination, accuracy, and rapid responses, while maintaining a controlled intensity of approximately 65%-75% and RPE 12-14. The control group participated in matched free-play physical education activities. Multicomponent agility was assessed using the N-Challenge Test. The results a significant main effect of group was observed (p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.842), as well as a significant main effect of initial agility level (p = 0.042, ηp² = 0.053). However, the interaction between group and initial agility level was not significant (p = 0.167, ηp² = 0.025). Small-ball-based physical activity was effective in improving multicomponent agility among students aged 11-12 years. Within this six-week intervention, improvements were greater in the intervention than in the matched control condition, while no evidence indicated that the intervention effect differed according to initial agility classification. Future studies should therefore consider involving larger and more diverse samples and implementing longer intervention periods.
Initial Teacher Education (ITE) in Physical Education is facing global and local changes in Chile as it seeks to meet the demands of an increasingly heterogeneous educational system. The objective of this study was to reveal the structural coherence between the graduate profile, the educational pathway, and the perceptions of teacher educators and fifth-year students. A qualitative methodological approach was adopted within a descriptive-interpretive case study design. Through purposive sampling, 6 students in professional practicum and 5 faculty members participated. The techniques employed included focus groups, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis, ensuring ethical safeguards such as informed consent, anonymity, and voluntary participation. Data processing was conducted using deductive-inductive thematic analysis in ATLAS.ti, employing coding and methodological triangulation. The results reveal a tension stemming from an imbalance in the training curriculum, which prioritizes a biological-sports-oriented approach over a comprehensive pedagogical one. Faced with pressures to prioritize performance and modular work, teachers maintain isolated practices, causing students to experience gaps in their understanding of special educational needs (SEN) and interculturality. It is concluded that the biomedical-sports hegemony must give way to future curricular improvements based on the demands of the current educational system.
Physical Education cognitive assessment requires validated instruments that capture not only factual knowledge but also students’ ability to apply and evaluate concepts in movement-related contexts. This study aims to develop and conduct a preliminary validation of a Physical Education cognitive test based on Lower-Order Thinking Skills (LOTS), Middle-Order Thinking Skills (MOTS) and Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) for students aged 12-15 years. This study employed a quantitative approach in the development and preliminary validation of the instrument. Content validation involved nine validators, comprising four lecturers and five Physical Education teachers from pilot schools. The empirical pilot study involved 722 students who returned complete and codable answer sheets in grades 7, 8 and 9 from five junior high schools. The instrument developed comprises 47 LOTS items, 35 MOTS items and 33 HOTS items, each with four answer options. The topics covered include big ball games, small ball games, athletics, gymnastics, physical fitness, pencak silat, healthy lifestyles and injury prevention. Content validity was analysed using Aiken’s V, whilst internal reliability was analysed using the Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) formula. The results showed that Aiken’s V ranged from 0.852 to 0.889, with an overall value of 0.870. The overall KR-20 value was 0.687, whilst the KR-20 values for LOTS, MOTS and HOTS were 0.573, 0.515 and 0.609, respectively. These results indicate that the instrument possesses strong evidence of content relevance and limited-to-moderate preliminary internal consistency. Therefore, the test may serve as a preliminary basis for further item refinement, Physical Education cognitive item-bank development, and broader psychometric validation.
This study presents a systematic review and bibliometric analysis of fundamental movement skills (FMS) research over the past decade (2015–2024), explicitly following PRISMA guidelines and utilizing VOSviewer (version 1.6.19) for bibliometric mapping. A total of 611 articles were retrieved from the Scopus database, of which 520 met the inclusion criteria after screening for peer-reviewed English articles with full-text access. The analysis reveals that FMS publications peaked in 2021 (72 articles), yet average citations per article declined sharply from 44.59 in 2015 to 2.27 in 2024. Australia contributed the highest number of publications (127; average citations 29.20), followed by the United Kingdom (103; 17.53) and the United States (62; 28.17), indicating an Anglo-centric dominance in the field. Medicine (338 publications) and Health Professions (197 publications) emerged as the dominant subject areas. The ten most cited studies focused on three core themes: validation of FMS assessment tools, structured interventions in physical education and family settings, and conceptual models linking FMS to lifelong physical activity and injury prevention. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that FMS research has matured from measurement validation toward lifespan health applications, yet significant gaps remain, including a lack of longitudinal studies, limited culturally adapted assessment tools, and underrepresentation of Global South contexts. Future research should prioritize multi-year developmental tracking and interventions tailored to diverse socioeconomic settings.
Sports development programs (SDPs) aim to facilitate meaningful participation in sport, but their effectiveness depends not only on policy design but also on implementation and stakeholder experiences. This qualitative systematic review and thematic synthesis examined stakeholders’ perspectives on policy implementation in SDPs across diverse international contexts. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, searches of Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar identified eligible qualitative and mixed-method studies published in English between 2020 and 2025. Twenty-five studies were included and appraised using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Qualitative Checklist, and findings were synthesized using thematic synthesis. Five analytical themes emerged: (1) governance and financial pressures; (2) policy–practice gaps; (3) structural and capacity constraints; (4) power and inequality; and (5) cultural and motivational challenges. The findings indicate that SDP policies are not implemented linearly but are interpreted and enacted within organizational and sociocultural contexts shaped by governance pressures, resource limitations, organizational priorities, stakeholder interests, and cultural expectations. Although policies can strengthen accountability and standardization, they may also constrain organizational autonomy and locally responsive implementation. Effective SDP implementation therefore requires balanced governance that combines accountability with flexibility, adequate organizational capacity, meaningful stakeholder participation, and context-responsive strategies to expand sporting opportunities, promote inclusion, and reduce inequalities in access to sport.
FunEBall is an inclusive net-based team sport designed to promote cooperation, active participation, and enjoyment. This study evaluated its implementation in university physical education using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. In the quantitative phase, 60 students from a state university in Davao Oriental, Philippines, were selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected using the researcher-developed FunEBall Student Feedback Survey and analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, ANOVA, Tukey's HSD test, supplementary nonparametric analyses (Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis H tests), effect size measures, and Cronbach's alpha. In the qualitative phase, open-ended responses were analyzed using thematic analysis. Results indicated that students reported very positive perceptions of FunEBall across the dimensions of engagement and participation, learning outcomes, physical activity and fitness, and enjoyment and perception. No significant differences were found according to age, gender, or prior playing experience, whereas significant differences were observed across year levels, particularly between first-year and second-year students. The supplementary nonparametric analyses generally supported the robustness of these findings despite the unequal group sizes. The instrument demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α = .971). Qualitative findings showed that students perceived FunEBall as fun, engaging, inclusive, collaborative, and supportive of skill development, physical activity, and confidence. Participants also recommended clearer game rules, larger playing areas, longer playing time, and enhanced strategy instruction. Overall, the findings provide preliminary evidence that FunEBall is a well-received and innovative physical education activity with educational potential to support active participation, teamwork, and positive learning experiences. However, these findings should be interpreted in light of the study's methodological limitations, including the small purposive sample and the absence of a control group.
This study examined work engagement and burnout among public school physical education teachers in the DepEd Davao del Norte Division, Philippines. Specifically, it determined the level of work engagement, the level of burnout, the relationship between work engagement and burnout, and the work engagement dimensions that significantly predict burnout. The study used a quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive-correlational design with regression analysis. Participants were 141 full-time public school physical education teachers, representing the total eligible population in the division. Data were collected using adapted questionnaires on work engagement and burnout and were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, Pearson product-moment correlation, and multiple linear regression. Results showed that the respondents reported a high overall level of work engagement (M = 4.19, SD = 0.44), with dedication obtaining the highest mean (M = 4.27, SD = 0.58). Burnout was moderate overall (M = 3.29, SD = 0.56), with personal accomplishment obtaining the highest mean (M = 4.26, SD = 0.74), followed by exhaustion (M = 3.19, SD = 0.84), while depersonalization was low (M = 2.44, SD = 0.86). A significant positive relationship was found between work engagement and burnout (r = .322, p < .001). Regression analysis further showed that work engagement explained 10.6% of the variance in burnout (R² = .106, F = 5.391, p < .001), with absorption emerging as the only significant predictor (β = .189, p = .038).The findings suggest that high work engagement may coexist with burnout among physical education teachers, particularly when deep immersion in work is not matched by adequate support and manageable demands. The study highlights the need for school-level measures that sustain teacher engagement while reducing the risk of overextension.
The evaluation of university professors has relied predominantly on research performance indicators and science communication metrics, overlooking the subjective perspectives of students and professors themselves regarding what constitutes a good university professor. This study aims to establish the social representations of a good university professor among undergraduate students in Physical Education in Medellín. A sequential mixed-methods design was conducted with 100 undergraduate students selected through simple random sampling, using Natural Semantic Networks. In-depth interviews were carried out with 5 prominent professors and analyzed using Atlas.ti version 25. Differences between groups were assessed according to semester of study (p<0.05). The lexical richness used by students to define a good university professor consisted of 81 words. The Hegemonic Social Representation (87.9%) comprised 18 words, with "researcher" positioned as the central attribute, linked to didactic, pedagogical, and human dimensions. Differences were statistically significant according to semester of study (p<0.05). The preeminence of "researcher" as the central attribute reflects the enduring influence of the Humboldtian model in higher education, which at times creates tension with pedagogical and teaching functions. A good university professor emerges as a multidimensional figure who integrates scientific rigor, didactic competence, and human warmth, suggesting the need to reconsider faculty evaluation models that prioritize research output over other equally relevant dimensions.
Ecuadorian Physical Education requires pedagogical approaches that foster motor adaptability; however, traditional technique-centered methods continue to predominate, limiting the integration of motor, cognitive, emotional, and social development in young learners. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the Motor Challenge-Based Learning Model (MCBLM) on motor adaptability among six-year-old students enrolled in private educational institutions in Quito, Ecuador, during the second academic term of the 2025–2026 school year. A quantitative quasi-experimental design was employed with a sample of 282 six-year-old students. The experimental group received twelve Physical Education sessions structured according to the MCBLM, while the control group followed a traditional instructional approach. Motor adaptability was assessed using the Motor Adaptability Observation Scale for Six-Year-Old Students (EOAM-6). The experimental group improved from 11.39 to 15.47 points (Δ = +4.08), whereas the control group increased from 11.29 to 12.59 points (Δ = +1.30). ANCOVA revealed significant differences between groups [F(1,279) = 146.37, p < .001], with a large effect size (d = 1.44; η²p = .344). The findings indicate that the MCBLM significantly enhanced motor adaptability in six-year-old students, producing large and consistent effects across institutions and sexes. These results support its viability and scalability as an innovative pedagogical approach for early Physical Education.
Gross motor coordination reflects the integration of sensori-motor processes, including visual-spatial orientation and proprioceptive feedback, which are essential for efficient movement execution during childhood. Disruptions in this integration may restrict participation in physical activity and adversely affect quality of life. The purpose of this study was to evaluate gross motor coordination in children aged 8-9 years and to examine potential gender-related differences in motor performance. A total of 145 children (74 boys and 71 girls) from public primary schools in the urban area of Shkodra, Albania, participated in the study. Gross motor coordination was assessed using the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK), which includes the Backward Walking, Hopping for Height (Right and Left leg), Lateral Jumps, and Platform Shifting. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted. Boys demonstrated significantly higher performance in Hopping Right (p = .039) and Platform Shifting (p = .032), whereas girls performed significantly better in Backward Walking (p = .026). Moderate to strong positive correlations were identified among the KTK subtests (r = 0.40-0.70), suggesting interrelated yet distinct dimensions of sensori-motor coordination. Overall, children in this age group exhibited a stable level of gross motor coordination with only minor gender-related differences. These findings provide region-specific evidence on sensori-motor development in early school-age children and support the inclusion of targeted sensori-motor coordination programs in primary school curricula.
Wheelchair basketball (WB) requires sport-specific assessment procedures that reflect the propulsion and turning demands of on-court performance. Traditional shuttle-based field tests may not fully reproduce the movement patterns of WB, particularly regarding bidirectional turns and continuous wheelchair propulsion. This pilot study aimed to develop and describe a novel eight-shaped field-test protocol designed to better reflect WB-specific propulsion and turning demands, and to explore its feasibility and preliminary cardiorespiratory responses compared with a laboratory treadmill protocol. Two male WB athletes with different functional classifications (1.0 and 3.0) completed a maximal incremental treadmill protocol and the proposed on-court test, both performed with Oxycon Jaeger® metabolic gas analysers. VO2max values reached during the field test were lower than those recorded in the laboratory for both participants (38.6 vs. 44.42 mL/kg/min for class 3.0; 32.35 vs. 38.33 mL/kg/min for class 1.0). Despite these differences, absolute VO2max values ranged from 2.11 to 2.49 L/min across both testing conditions, while ventilation responses followed the same overall pattern, with higher values generally observed in the laboratory. The proposed test is presented here as a novel protocol for future validation; it may provide a promising on-court alternative to VO2max measurement by offering greater ecological specificity than traditional shuttle run tests. Its structure allows bidirectional turns and smoother propulsion, which could help mitigate mechanical asymmetries inherent to conventional protocols. Given these preliminary results, broader validation is needed to confirm reproducibility and to establish reference percentiles across functional classes, age, and gender.
