GBS is a rare but serious neurological disorder in which the immune system mistakenly targets the nerves, causing muscle weakness, tingling, and, in severe cases, paralysis. First identified in 1916, GBS has several variations, including acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP), acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN), and Miller Fisher Syndrome (MFS). Although its exact cause remains unclear, it is often triggered by infections, vaccinations, surgery, or autoimmune conditions. The disorder disrupts nerve communication by damaging either the protective myelin sheath or the nerve fibres themselves, leading to motor and autonomic dysfunction. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and nerve studies. Treatment primarily involves modulating the immune response through intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) or plasma exchange, along with supportive care and rehabilitation. While most individuals recover within a year, some may experience persistent weakness or complications. Advances in medical research have significantly improved recovery rates, but further studies are needed to enhance understanding and prevention of the condition.
Quality Risk Management (QRM) has evolved from a compliance formality into a strategic, science-based framework governing pharmaceutical quality across the product lifecycle. Anchored in ICH Q9 (2005) and its 2023 revision ICH Q9(R1), QRM provides a systematic process for identifying, assessing, controlling, communicating, and reviewing risks to drug product quality and patient safety. This review examines the foundational principles, global regulatory frameworks, key amendments introduced by Q9(R1), risk assessment methodologies, lifecycle integration with ICH Q10 and Q12, comparative QRM in sterile and non-sterile manufacturing, digital transformation including artificial intelligence and predictive analytics, major industry failure case studies, and regulatory inspection trends from 2020 to 2025. Key themes include the shift from subjective scoring to evidence-based risk assessment, the principle of proportionality in formality, recognition of product availability as a patient safety concern, and the emergence of hybrid quantitative-qualitative risk models supported by digital quality systems. Regulatory inspection analysis highlights persistent systemic gaps in data integrity, change management risk assessment, supplier oversight, and operational connectivity of risk outputs. The review concludes by identifying research gaps in AI governance, supply chain risk intelligence, biologics risk profiling, and patient-centered risk metrics. QRM under ICH Q9(R1) is positioned as an indispensable strategic pillar for patient protection, regulatory flexibility, and continuous improvement throughout the pharmaceutical product lifecycle.
Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze (synonym: Rhus succedanea L.) is a tree in the family of Anacardiaceae. T. succedaneum has been using to treat diarrhoea, nose and gum bleedings, vomiting, dysentery, cough, tuberculosis, fever, asthma, liver ailments, and ear infections in traditional medicines. Phytochemicals such as agathis flavone, rhus flavone, robusta flavone, succedanea flavanone, and volkensi flavone were isolated from this plant species. Various parts of T. succedaneum disclosed such as antibacterial, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiviral activities. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antiviral compounds have been identified from this plant species. Further bioactivity and phytochemical studies should make it possible to obtain additional scientific evidence. Based on the presence of the various chemical constituent’s antidepressant activity was performed using aqueous and alcoholic leaves extract.
Bryophyllum pinnatum is a therapeutic herb utilized in traditional healing for remediation numerous health issues. Research indicates that it possesses restorative qualities. characteristics such as lowering inflammation, combating microorganisms, hindering tumors, and accelerating healing curing. It may aid in addressing kidney stones band diabetes. The plant holds natural substances. that provide it these advantages. Even though it is successful in conventional medicine, additional studies are required to comprehend its complete capabilities and guarantee it’s secure for contemporary healthcare applications effect. Urolithiasis, commonly known as kidney stone disease, is a major global health concern with high recurrence and limited treatment options. Synthetic drugs and surgical procedures are often associated with side effects and do not prevent relapse, which has increased interest in plant-based therapies. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae), a medicinal plant used in Ayurveda and folk medicine, exhibits notable antiurolithiatic activity. Phytoconstituents such as flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, triterpenes, and phenolics are responsible for its protective effects on the renal system. Experimental studies have shown that extracts of B. pinnatum can prevent calcium oxalate crystal formation by inhibiting nucleation, aggregation, and growth, while also enhancing their dissolution. Its diuretic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities further aid in reducing urinary stone burden and protecting renal tissue from oxidative stress. These pharmacological mechanisms suggest that Bryophyllum pinnatum may serve as a safe, natural, and effective therapeutic candidate for the management and prevention of urolithiasis, although clinical validation is still required.
Objective: Prescription pattern monitoring studies (PPMS) are crucial for evaluating medication use, particularly in managing cardiovascular diseases like hypertension and ischemic heart disease. This study examined the prescribing patterns of cardiovascular drugs in a rural tertiary care hospital's cardiology OPD, according to WHO core prescribing indicators. Methodology: An observational, hospital-based study was conducted over three months, with approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee. The study evaluated prescriptions for commonly prescribed cardiovascular drugs, focusing on CVD alone, CVD with comorbidities and CVD with other conditions. A number of drugs prescribed by generic versus brand name, monotherapy versus combination therapy, and the essentiality of drugs based on the Essential Drugs List (EDL) and National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) were evaluated. Microsoft Excel was used for data analysis. Results and Discussion: A total of 176 prescriptions containing 97 different drugs were evaluated. Of these, 24.48% were for patients with CVD alone, 27.79% for CVD with comorbidities and 47.63% for CVD with other conditions. Generic drugs were prescribed in 62.43% of cases. Antiplatelets, sympatholytics, diuretics, and RAAS blockers were the most commonly prescribed drugs. Among 176 prescriptions consisted of 97 drugs, the majority of them prescribed as monotherapy and then a Two-drug regimen and found Essential according to EDL 42.27% and NLEM 39.18%. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach to managing CVD and related conditions, highlighting the preference for generic medications to enhance accessibility and affordability, personalized patient care and the careful selection of medications to maximize therapeutic benefits while minimizing risks.
The South Asian native plant Moringa oleifera, commonly known as the "miracle tree," grows swiftly and Is drought-tolerant. Additionally, traditional medicine makes extensive use of it. It has attracted interest from all around the world because of its extensive phytochemical profile and nutritional and medicinal qualities. A diverse range of Bioactive substances are present in the seeds, leaves, pods, bark, and roots, such as flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol), phenolic acids, glucosinolates, alkaloids, tannins, carotenoids, as well as important vitamins and minerals. They are found in the bark, roots, seeds, leaves, and pods. These components exhibit an assortment of pharmacological effects, encompassing hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, as well as anticancer action. The leaves are valued for their nutritional benefits and adaptogenic properties, while the seeds are particularly recognized for their antibacterial and anticancer effects. Recent research, backed by preclinical data and growing patent activity, has highlighted Moringa’s promise in medicines, nutraceuticals, and functional foods. Despite these encouraging results, clinical translation is limited by the lack of standardized formulations and thorough clinical trials. Future studies should concentrate on formulation uniformity, toxicological assessment, and thorough clinical validation to guarantee safety and effectiveness in human populations. Moringa oleifera provides a natural, multi-targeted therapeutic approach to treating a range of illnesses and fostering wellbeing.
The investigation assessed the analgesic potential of Sansevieria roxburghiana leaf extracted by Soxhlet extraction in traditional in vivo models in albino mice. Although it is traditionally known as a therapeutic resource, S. roxburghiana has not been comprehensively investigated scientifically concerning its ethno-medicinal uses. Analgesic activity of the aqueous extract of the leaves was evaluated using two valid methods: the acetic acid-induced writhing and Eddy Hot-Plate models. These models aim to demonstrate the antagonism of peripheral and central nociception, respectively. There were four groups of animals: control (normal saline), along with the standard (Diclofenac sodium, 10mg/kg) and two-dose-depicted group A (low dose of SRAE 100mg/kg) and group B (high dose of SRAE 200mg/kg) of the aqueous extract. The dose-dependent significant inhibitory effect of abdominal writhes was recorded on extract-treated groups in the model of the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhes, and this effect was dose-dependent, hence, a significant analgesic peripheral activity. There was a significant increase in the latency period in the hot plate assay, indicating central analgesic effects. The large-dose group produced comparable effects to the conventional medicine, making the extract effective in a two-way mechanism of action. The results can support the conventional application of the Sansevieria roxburghiana in pain management and the similarity of using it as a source of bioactive compounds to turn into innovative pain medications. It is justified to conduct further studies by isolating the phytochemicals and screening the mechanistic validation to determine the underlying pathways. The study gives upstream scientific evidence on the pharmacologic importance of S. roxburghiana and will encourage its incorporation into evidence-based herbal medicines.
The mycobacterial enzyme KatG activates the prodrug INH, which produces reactive intermediates that prevent the formation since its introduction in 1952, isoniazid (INH), a first-line antitubercular medication, has been known for its strong and specific action against Mycobacterium TB. The mycobacterial enzyme KatG activates the prodrug INH, which produces reactive intermediates that prevent the formation of mycolic acid and inhibit InhA, ultimately causing bacterial cell death. Recent studies have demonstrated INH's potential utility in neuropharmacology in addition to its well-established antibacterial function. INH is a promising scaffold for creating neuroprotective derivatives since experimental research indicates that its hydrazide and pyridine moieties contribute to anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic activities. Emerging preclinical evidence indicates that INH can modulate key pathways implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease (PD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). INH has been shown to suppress monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) and BACE1, reduce neuroinflammation, and preserve synaptic structure in AD mouse models. In PD, INH’s interaction with pyridoxal-5-phosphate temporarily alters GABA synthesis, potentially restoring dopaminergic–GABAergic balance and reducing levodopa-induced dyskinesia, although clinical effects remain inconsistent. Several INH-based derivatives also display antioxidant activity, improved mitochondrial protection, and reduction of pathological protein aggregation in experimental models. Nonetheless, INH's simple structure, favorable pharmacokinetics, and modifiable hydrazide backbone make it an appealing starting point for multi-target drug development targeting neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and protein misfolding—central mechanisms shared by major neurodegenerative diseases.
The present study focuses on the phyto-pharmaceutical and pharmacognostical evaluation of Mimosa pudica Linn. (Family: Fabaceae), commonly known as the “Sensitive Plant” or “Touch-me-not.” This work aims to establish comprehensive pharmacognostic standards and investigate the phytochemical constituents responsible for the plant’s therapeutic properties. Macroscopic and microscopic examinations of the leaves, stems, and roots were performed to identify diagnostic features and quality parameters. Physicochemical analyses, including moisture content, ash values, and extractive values, were determined according to WHO guidelines. Preliminary phytochemical screening of various extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, saponins, and phenolic compounds. These constituents are associated with diverse pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and wound-healing effects. The study provides essential pharmacognostic markers and phytochemical profiles that may serve as reliable tools for the standardization and quality control of Mimosa pudica-based herbal formulations, thereby supporting its use in traditional and modern medicine.
Experimental pharmacology plays a pivotal role in understanding drug actions, mechanisms, and safety profiles through controlled laboratory investigations. Traditionally, this field has relied on animal models, organ bath experiments, bioassays, and histological evaluations to study pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, dose-response relationships, and toxicity. While these methods have provided fundamental insights, they are often limited by ethical concerns, species variability, lower sensitivity, and restricted translational relevance. Recent advances have transformed experimental pharmacology, integrating cutting-edge approaches such as high-throughput screening (HTS), CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, proteomics, and artificial intelligence-driven predictive modeling. Moreover, organ-on-chip devices, 3D bioprinting, and organoid cultures now enable human-relevant models that better replicate physiological systems and reduce reliance on animal testing. In silico pharmacology, including molecular docking and dynamics simulations, further enhances the predictive power of drug discovery by elucidating drug-target interactions at the molecular level. Together, these developments have improved accuracy, efficiency, and ethical standards, thereby accelerating the translation of preclinical findings into safe and effective therapeutics. This review highlights the evolution of experimental pharmacology from traditional models to modern technological innovations, emphasizing their collective role in advancing drug discovery and development.
Nephropathy, resulting from diabetes, drug toxicity, or oxidative stress, is a major contributor to chronic kidney disease worldwide. Natural products with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties are gaining attention as potential nephroprotective agents. Bromelain, a cysteine protease derived from pineapple (Ananas comosus), has demonstrated significant renoprotective effects in preclinical models of diabetic, drug-induced, and oxidative stress–related nephropathy. Mechanistically, bromelain attenuates oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis while enhancing antioxidant defense and modulating immune responses. Its favorable safety profile, oral bioavailability, and nutraceutical potential make it a promising adjunct or alternative therapy. However, clinical evidence in human nephropathy remains limited, and challenges such as enzyme stability, standardization, and bioavailability need to be addressed. Future strategies involving nanotechnology-based delivery, combination therapy with other natural products, and precision medicine approaches may enhance its therapeutic potential. This review summarizes the mechanisms, experimental evidence, clinical relevance, and future perspectives of bromelain as a renoprotective agent, highlighting its promise in kidney disease management and the need for further clinical validation.
The current status of medicinal plants have a unavoidable parameter for the treatment of certain diseases. A plant of the family Amaranthaceae used as a traditional medicine on the treatment of antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant is Amaranthus viridis. Mikania micrantha is an insecticide-resistant species of plant which has demonstrated many health benefits, such as antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and wound healing activity or dermatological activity. Amaranthus viridis produce various biological activity due to present of some important phytoconstituents such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, tannins triterpenoids, cardiac glycosides, glycosides (general), anthraquinones, resin. Mikania micrantha is responsible for different pharmacological property which may be occurs due to presence of flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolic compounds, saponins. Both plant has not undergone clinical trial in human beings. The research studies in future should cover significant issues. It must address the high chemitoxic variability of phytochemicals in the two species by standardizing with markers. It is also important to clarify safety profiles. It is particularly so in the case of the chronic nephrotoxic risk linked to A. viridis, and the safety of the allelochemicals of M. micrantha across the system.
Background: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of newspaper material extract (4 weeks) on adult zebrafish. Aim: To determine the toxic effects of newspaper, extract on zebrafish liver and intestine. Settings and Design: 48 adult zebrafish were procured from a local pet shop in Gulbarga and maintained in 8 round glass ponds. “OPTIMUM Highly Nutritious Food” was used as feed. Newspaper extracts (0.5%–10%) were prepared by adding weighed newspaper to 100mL water and squeezing out the extract. Materials and Methods: Zebrafish were divided into 8 groups (6 per group); Group 1 was control, and Groups 2–8 received 0.5%–10% newspaper extract for 4 weeks, with incremental doses each week. Fish were fed twice daily, and ponds cleaned every evening. One fish per group was sacrificed at the end of the study, and liver with intestine was fixed in 10% formalin for histological examination. Statistical Analysis: Mean length of fishes after anesthesia was calculated. Results: Higher concentrations of newspaper extract increased risk of liver and intestinal damage.
Progressive neuronal loss, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation are hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's, which eventually result in cognitive decline. Using natural products to target neuroinflammatory pathways has become a promising therapeutic approach for neuroprotection. Indole alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic components have notable pharmacological effects in neurodegeneration. These bioactive substances are found in Tabernaemontana divaricata, a medicinal plant belonging to Apocynaceae family. The current article emphasizes T. divaricata's neuroprotective potential and its possible contribution to reducing cognitive impairment brought on by neuroinflammation. Pharmacological and experimental research indicates that the plant has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant qualities. It can scavenge free radicals, prevent lipid peroxidation, and reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Furthermore, by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, its bioactive chemicals may improve cholinergic neurotransmission and promote neuronal survival by preserving neurotrophic factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Together, these processes enhance neuronal protection, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive performance. With all factors considered, T. divaricata shows encouraging neuroprotective potential and could be a useful natural medicinal option for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases linked to neuroinflammation.
Recent antimalarial drug discovery has been a race to produce new medicines that overcome emerging drug resistance, whilst considering safety and improving dosing convenience. Discovery efforts have yielded a variety of new molecules, many with novel modes of action, and the most advanced are in late-stage clinical development. These discoveries have led to a deeper understanding of how antimalarial drugs act, the identification of a new generation of drug targets, and multiple structure-based chemistry initiatives. The limited pool of funding means it is vital to prioritize new drug candidates. They should exhibit high potency, a low propensity for resistance, a pharmacokinetic profile that favours infrequent dosing, low cost, preclinical results that demonstrate safety and tolerability in women and infants, and preferably the ability to block Plasmodium transmission to Anopheles mosquito vectors. In this Review, we describe the approaches that have been successful, progress in preclinical and clinical development, and existing challenges. We illustrate how antimalarial drug discovery can serve as a model for drug discovery in diseases of poverty.
0.5–1% of children worldwide suffer from epilepsy, a widespread neurological condition that affects people of all genders and demographics. It is a collection of disorders rather than a single illness that is typified by frequent, erratic seizures brought on by aberrant brain activity. These seizures can take many different forms, such as convulsions, sensory or behavioral abnormalities, or loss of consciousness. Recurrent unprovoked seizures, a high likelihood of recurrence, or an epileptic syndrome are the criteria used by the International League Against epileptic (ILAE) to describe epilepsy. Patients' neurological, emotional, and social well-being are greatly impacted by epilepsy, which is caused by neuronal hyperexcitability. Seizure type, EEG results, and related neurological characteristics determine classification. All things considered, epilepsy is a complicated condition with a wide range of causes and symptoms. In children, epilepsy and Attention Deficincy Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often co-occur; approximately 30–40% of children with epilepsy also have ADHD. There are two types of epileptic seizures: focal and generalized. Automatisms, atonic or tonic episodes, clonic jerks, spasms, hyperkinetic movements, or myoclonus are examples of motor symptoms that can accompany focal seizures. Non-motor symptoms include autonomic changes, behavior arrest, cognitive disturbances, emotional changes, or sensory abnormalities. Absence seizures, myoclonic seizures, atonic seizures, tonic seizures, and tonic-clonic seizures are examples of generalized seizures that affect both hemispheres of the brain. This categorization aids in the diagnosis, management, and comprehension of epileptic seizure patterns. A common neurological condition in children, epilepsy is most common in the first year of life and is more common in low- and middle-income nations, where the majority of cases go untreated. The six main categories of its causes are structural, genetic, infectious, metabolic, immunological, and unknown. An imbalance between neuronal excitation and inhibition causes aberrant electrical activity during seizures, which can extend to different parts of the brain. Ion channel malfunction, neurotransmitter imbalance, and altered neuronal circuitry are some of the factors that lead to epileptogenesis and can have long-term repercussions on cognition, particularly following protracted or frequent seizures. When assessing epilepsy, a physical examination is crucial. This includes measuring blood pressure, looking for signs of neurocutaneous syndromes on the skin, and looking for anomalies in the skull that can point to underlying neurological conditions. Electroencephalography (EEG), neuroimaging, and genetic testing are used to diagnose epilepsy in children. Sleep EEG is crucial for focal epilepsies and epileptic encephalopathies. EEG is an easy-to-use method for identifying aberrant cortical excitability. While genetic testing, including next-generation sequencing, has identified over 265 genes associated with epilepsy, increasing the identification of genetic epilepsies, neuroimaging detects structural abnormalities in the brain. Antiepileptic medications including carbamazepine, ethosuximide, and levetiracetam are used in treatment; each is customized for a particular type of seizure and age group while taking side effects and effectiveness into account. An alternate strategy is offered by dietary therapy, especially the ketogenic diet, which lowers seizure frequency by altering neurotransmitter activity and brain metabolism. Together, these therapeutic and diagnostic approaches allow children with epilepsy to be Effecetiveiy managed.
Schizophrenia is a chronic and heterogeneous neuropsychiatric condition that affects approximately one percent of the global population and is associated with substantial impairments in perception, cognition, emotional regulation, and social functioning. The disorder typically manifests during late adolescence or early adulthood and arises from a complex interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental influences acting during critical stages of brain development. Clinically, schizophrenia is characterized by three major symptom clusters: positive symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking; negative symptoms, such as reduced motivation, emotional blunting, social withdrawal, and diminished pleasure; and cognitive deficits involving attention, memory, learning, and executive processing. Traditional dopamine-centered theories primarily explain the emergence of positive symptoms but fail to adequately account for persistent negative and cognitive impairments. Contemporary research highlights the involvement of glutamatergic dysregulation, particularly N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor hypofunction, altered serotonergic signaling, and disrupted cortico–striatal–thalamic connectivity. Neuroimaging studies further demonstrate widespread structural and functional brain abnormalities, supporting a neurodevelopmental basis for the disorder. Increasing evidence also implicates neuroinflammatory processes, immune imbalance, and oxidative stress in the progression of neuronal dysfunction and white matter damage. Although currently available antipsychotic medications effectively alleviate positive symptoms in many patients, their clinical benefit is limited by adverse effects and insufficient efficacy against negative and cognitive domains. These limitations emphasize the necessity for safer and more comprehensive therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes current understanding of the clinical features, etiological factors, biological mechanisms, and pharmacological management of schizophrenia, while outlining emerging therapeutic targets that may guide future research and drug development.
Un control diabetes mellitus endup with microvascular complication Diabetic Neuropathy, Retinopathy and Nephropathy, among all three-complication diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide. Current treatment approaches—such as glycemic control, RAAS inhibition, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists—offer limited effectiveness and are frequently linked to adverse side effects. This limitation the urgent added by novel, multi-targeted approaches. Bioflavonoids, which are naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds, show potential as nephroprotective agents as of their strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic properties. Cassia auriculata, a medicinal plant widely used in traditional medicine, it contains bioflavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, apigenin, and isorhamnetin. These compounds modulate oxidative stress, inhibit AGE–RAGE and NF-κB signaling, suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines, and improve insulin sensitivity, thereby protecting against glomerular hypertrophy, mesangial expansion, and proteinuria. Preclinical research shows that these flavonoids modulate various molecular pathways—such as MAPK, Nrf2/HO-1, STAT3, and the NLRP3 inflammasome—to reduce kidney damage in diabetic models. However, their poor bioavailability and rapid metabolism limit clinical application. Drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology offer a novel approach to improve solubility, stability, and overall therapeutic effectiveness. So far, there have been no reports of nanoformulations containing dual phytoflavonoids for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy (DN). Based on the insights from this review, we propose the formulation and evaluation of dual bioflavonoid-loaded nanocarriers as a novel treatment strategy, aiming to synergistically regulate multiple pathogenic mechanisms. Further pharmacokinetic studies, molecular investigations, and clinical validation are essential to translate these promising natural agents into effective nephroprotective therapies.
Asthma is a complex, heterogeneous respiratory disorder characterized by variable airflow obstruction, airway hyper responsiveness, and chronic inflammation. Despite advancements in therapeutic options, interindividual variability in drug response remains a significant challenge in asthma management. Pharmacogenomics, the study of how genetic variations influence drug efficacy and safety, has emerged as a promising approach to personalize asthma therapy. Recent research has identified critical pharmacogenomic biomarkers, including polymorphisms in genes such as ADRB2, GLCCI1, ALOX5, and IL4RA, which predict differential responses to β2-agonists, inhaled corticosteroids, leukotriene modifiers, and biologic agents targeting type 2 inflammation pathways. Technological advancements, including genome-wide association studies (GWAS), next-generation sequencing (NGS), and multi-omics integration, have accelerated the discovery of novel biomarkers and refined asthma endotyping. Furthermore, the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning is enhancing biomarker discovery and predictive modeling. Despite promising developments, challenges such as population heterogeneity, ethical concerns, and limited clinical implementation persist. This review highlights the recent progress in pharmacogenomic biomarker discovery and their potential to transform asthma management into a more precise and individualized discipline.
Obesity is a multifactorial, chronic disease characterized by abnormal or excessive fat accumulation arising from prolonged energy imbalance. It is strongly associated with an increased risk of metabolic, cardiovascular, and neoplastic disorders, thereby constituting a major global health burden. The pathogenesis of obesity involves complex mechanisms, including adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia, dysregulated lipid metabolism, and chronic low-grade inflammation, further influenced by genetic predisposition, behavioral patterns, and environmental factors. Epidemiological data reveal alarming prevalence trends, with more than one third of the global population considered as overweight or obese. Conventional management strategies such as lifestyle modification, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery are limited by suboptimal efficacy and poor long-term sustainability, highlighting the urgent need for more effective therapeutic approaches. This review emphasizes recent advances in the cellular and molecular understanding of obesity, with a focus on adipogenesis and adipose tissue dysfunction as critical therapeutic targets. Particular attention is directed toward the complementary use of in vitro, in silico, and in vivo models in antiobesity drug discovery. In vitro assays, including pancreatic lipase inhibition and adipocyte differentiation studies, provide mechanistic insights into adipose biology. In silico approaches, such as molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, enable the prediction of molecular targets and optimization of candidate compounds. In vivo rodent models, which recapitulate human metabolic disturbances, remain indispensable for evaluating preclinical efficacy and safety. Emerging evidence also underscores the potential of natural bioactive compounds as safer, multi-targeted therapeutic interventions. Future perspectives advocate the integration of advanced 3D tissue models, computational systems biology, and personalized medicine to improve translational relevance, reduce reliance on animal experimentation, and accelerate the development of next generation antiobesity therapeutics.
