Participation in intercollegiate sport can foster a range of positive individual outcomes (e.g., growth, resilience development). However, research suggests the multitude of demands intercollegiate athletes need to balance (e.g., academic and sport-specific stressors) can also increase their susceptibility to burnout, which is characterized by reduced personal accomplishment, emotional and physical exhaustion, and a sense of sport devaluation. In this scoping review, we sought to identify with whom and how burnout has been studied, as well as summarize factors that have been found to be associated with burnout. Following a systematic literature search, 29 studies were included in the review, comprising 8,022 intercollegiate athletes (55% female). These studies were predominantly quantitative and cross-sectional (n = 22) in design, conducted in the United States (n = 15), examined participants from multiple sports (n = 25), and grounded in the conceptualization by Raedeke and Smith (2001;n = 24). The range of factors associated with burnout were organized into four categories: demographic influences (e.g., participant sex, academic year), personal characteristics (e.g., perfectionism, grit), psychosocial states (e.g., motivation, emotions), and interpersonal factors (e.g., social support, coach-athlete relationships). Limitations and current gaps in understanding are highlighted, which notably includes a general inability to identify the directionality of effects between burnout and its correlates. Such gaps give way to recommendations for future research in this area of work, such as examining the unique and independent (statistical) contribution of sport-specific stressors versus other types of stressors (e.g., academic, social, financial) to burnout experiences in intercollegiate athletes. Taken together, the findings from this review could help researchers and stakeholders (e.g., applied practitioners, athletics departments) develop interventions that support performance and wellbeing for this population.
Intercollegiate athletics offers a valuable environment for college athletes leadership development, yet gender disparities remain in leadership roles. While female participation in college sports has grown significantly since Title IX, women still hold only 25% of NCAA leadership positions. This study explored leadership competencies among male and female NCAA athletes, focusing on key differences and their implications. A total of 232 athletes (61.7% female, 38.3% male) from all divisions completed surveys using the Leadership Learning Agility Scale (LLAS) and the Student Leadership Behavior Scale (SLBS). Results showed that female athletes scored significantly higher in six of nine leadership competencies. These findings underscore the need for gender-specific leadership programming to build confidence and prepare female athletes for future leadership roles. Tailored initiatives can help athletic departments promote more inclusive leadership development. Future research should examine the long-term and qualitative impacts of such targeted efforts.
In the absence of uniform national standards, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) member institutions have developed distinct name, image, and likeness (NIL) policies. This study utilized a critical theory lens to examine those policies among athletic departments competing at the Power 4 level. Institutional NIL policies and related documents were collected from publicly available sources and systematically evaluated using a content analysis methodology. This analysis revealed four major themes across institutional NIL policies: (1) use of institutional marks, (2) use of institutional facilities, (3) educational programming, and (4) disclosure requirements. Findings indicate that, while many aspects of NIL policies at Power 4 institutions are isomorphic in nature, notable differences remain in certain components, including the scope of permissible activities and NIL deal reporting mechanisms. These discrepancies raise important questions about why institutions adopt varying NIL policies, how such differences may affect college athletes, and what this indicates about power structures in college sport. Identifying these policy variations is of value to better understand their implications for athletes’ ability to monetize their NIL rights and navigate a complex policy environment.
Historically, transfer rules within the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) have been prohibitive, limiting the autonomy of college athletes. In recent years, the NCAA introduced the transfer portal which does not require athletes to notify their current institution when they plan to transfer or necessitate they sit out a year the first time they transfer. The process and culture around transferring has changed drastically, prompting further exploration into the movement between schools and conferences. This study employed a phenomenological research design by conducting two rounds of interviews to uncover the lived experiences of Division I men’s basketball athletes from one university who entered the transfer portal and left their institution following the 2021-2022 season. Two semi-structured interviews, one season apart, were conducted with three athletes, examining questions around team culture, relationships with staff and teammates, and indicators of well-being. Findings suggest it was the relationship with their coaches, or lack thereof, that severely influenced their decision to enter the transfer portal. Overall, athletes felt supported by their teammates, but that was not enough to change their experience on the team. Following their transfer, athletes confirmed the importance of their player-coach relationship in their college athlete experience, and reflected on the ever-changing environment of college basketball as a business. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Mental health is a critical and timely topic within college athletics. As such, athletic departments have created initiatives to enhance the experience of athletes. However, research indicates that college athletes often feel uncomfortable seeking mental health support and, in turn, look for alternative outlets. This study examines the role of Division I athletic academic advisors with college athlete mental health, seeking to understand how they use their role to enhance college athlete mental health and the training they receive to do so. Using Ecological Systems theory, we identify that college athlete academic advisors rely heavily on microsystem relationships to enhance the well-being of college athletes. As such, these individuals make decisions that directly impact their life, like working weekends, to ensure the success of college athletes. Additional findings indicate that college athlete academic advisors are often underprepared for their role, and lack support from their departments, further isolating them in their journey to enhance the well-being of college athletes. We suggest that athletic departments invest in the professional development of athletic academic advisors, including providing mental health training and partnering with on-campus resources to better support these professionals. Keywords: mental health, college athletes, athletic academic advisor, advising
Amidst recent legislative changes that have transformed and further commercialized the Division I (DI) college sports industry, researchers and institutions have begun to emphasize the importance of student-athlete holistic development. This shift toward holistic development attempts to counteract claims that the college sports system prioritizes athletic success at the expense of student-athletes’ holistic development. Existing theories help institutions understand the factors that contribute to student-athlete holistic development, particularly for Black student-athletes (BSAs) playing at predominantly White institutions (PWIs). The purpose of this paper is to expand existing frameworks by exploring the role that institutional culture and mission play in student-athletes’ holistic development using grounded theory. Semi-structured interviews with 20 Black former DI football and women’s basketball players and 12 DI football and women’s basketball coaches revealed three primary themes: 1) goals influence HIP participation, 2) HIPs occur outside athletics, and 3) messaging reflects institutional values. The findings present implications for PWIs looking to improve retention and belonging of their BSAs through an emerging theoretical framework.
As intercollegiate athletic programs evolve, the role of the athletic director (AD) has become increasingly complex, with varied career paths leading to this position across different NCAA divisions and NAIA institutions. Traditionally, the AD career trajectory followed a linear progression, often starting with coaching experience. However, recent research reveals that individuals from diverse professional backgrounds and educational experiences now enter the AD role (Fitzgerald et al., 1994; Lumpkin et al., 2015). This study explores the career and educational trajectories and mentorship and professional development trends of athletic directors across NCAA Divisions I, II, III, and NAIA, aiming to identify unique pathways specific to each division. A total of 160 participants completed surveys related to their path to the AD chair to include coursework, internships, graduate assistantships, professional development, and mentorship. Through chi-square analyses, the study reveals significant differences in work experience across the four groups. Key findings include variations in prior roles such as associate AD and head coach, as well as differences in internship experiences. The results highlight the importance of practical experiences in shaping career trajectories, offering valuable insights for faculty mentoring students aspiring to become ADs. These findings can guide faculty as they create curriculum for students in selecting appropriate educational and practical opportunities based on their aspirations within different divisions.
Research has hinted at the effects organizational culture may have on sport employees and their families, but this relationship has primarily been explored through the experiences of the employees and has not considered the experiences of their families. Additionally, this relationship has not been directly examined from a biopsychosocial (i.e., biological, psychological, and social well-being) perspective. Thus, the purpose of this narrative inquiry was to explore the stories of collegiate sport administrators and their partners to construct their narratives of well-being within the context of sport. Nine dyads—a college athletic administrator and their partner—participated in narrative interviews. Following a two-step narrative analysis, two distinct narrative archetypes were constructed: organized life around sport and organized life around family. This suggests that, in contrast to much previous literature, there are some sport employees who are prioritizing nonwork life over career. The findings also suggest sport influences all domains of health though non-direct changeways, which has implications for the biopsychosocial model of health. Specifically, for both archetypes, work in sport both enhanced and diminished employees’ and their partners’ biopsychosocial health, but participants focused mostly on the everyday impacts on social health. Practical implications for sport organizations include systemic changes to allow for better work-life negotiations.
Experiences are the impressions developed through gaining, using, fostering, and sometimes disposing of a service or product. Recent years have shown an ongoing emphasis placed on experiences and their impacts; one of particular interest for this study are the experiences of para-collegiate student-athletes. Using the Experience Type Framework (ETF) and the Experience Impact Scale (EIS), the purpose of this study was to understand the experience of involvement in intercollegiate sports among student-athletes with disabilities. This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed methods design, using quantitative and qualitative data to understand the student-athlete with disabilities experience. Phase I (n = 30) used the EIS to measure the impact of para-collegiate sports experiences, while Phase II used semi-structured interviews (n = 11) to identify characteristics of para-collegiate sports experiences. Findings from Phase I indicated that para-collegiate sports presented as highly impactful (23% Meaningful and 77% Transformative), and in Phase II, three overall themes emerged, one for each experience type: (1) importance of the disability community and development of life-long friendships (memorable), (2) holistic growth on and off the court for (meaningful), and (3) sense of purpose and self (transformative).
The redshirt freshman year is often used by athletics programs to build incoming athletes’ physical skills without compromising a year of eligibility. While one line of thought suggests this year allows athletes to adjust to campus life and pursue classroom interests, another describes the redshirt freshman year as a challenge, as one goes from being a key player in high school to benched their first year of college. Despite this being a crucial time for athletes’ development, little is understood about the redshirt experience and its social and psychological effects on athletes. This study investigated athletes’ identity development through a theoretical coupling of Schlossberg’s (1981) Transition Theory and Erikson’s (1950) Stages of Psychosocial Development. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 11 Division II football athletes who redshirted their freshman year. Findings noted four consistent themes: (1) athletes’ perceptions of their uniqueness and distinction in high school, (2) determination through the redshirt freshman year, (3) subsequent team isolation, and (4) little desire for team intimacy. Implications of this study include the importance of transparency during the redshirt freshman year and intentionally integrating athletes into team communities.
Volleyball is growing in popularity throughout the United States, both as a participatory and spectator sport, particularly at the collegiate level. Little prior research, however, has examined demand variables driving NCAA Division I volleyball attendance. In particular, the current study examines whether selling tickets, as opposed to allowing spectators to attend a match without paying for a ticket, is correlated with attendance. Using a random effects regression model, the current investigation found factors such as promotions, home team success, visiting team success, and proximity of schools all have a positive correlation with attendance. The practice of selling tickets for entry, however, does not have a significant relationship with fan attendance when controlling for a wide variety of time/environment-related, game-related, performance-related, and market-related variables.
Athletic identity, as scholars have demonstrated, shapes the perceptions and experiences of college athletes. Likewise, scholars have also shown that career preparation (or the lack thereof) is an important component of athletes’ general preparation for life after sport. This study focuses on former college athletes’ perception of how their athletic identity and commitment to their athletic role shaped their career preparedness. It does so by interviewing former college athletes who have had the requisite time to reflect on their career preparedness, and by considering what the authors call ‘the athletic reckoning.’ This is the juncture at which participants come to the realization that their athletic career is over and, often correspondingly, take on a heightened focus regarding their vocational development. Findings also shed light on the job market experiences of unprepared athletes. The study has implications for both scholars of intercollegiate sport and for practitioners in athletic departments who work with current and former college athletes.
This qualitative study explored how to facilitate greater inclusion of LGBTQ student-athletes and employees within the context of a collegiate athletic department that participated in a multi-level bystander intervention training for athletes, coaches, and staff. Beyond scholarship that recommends an initial educational training, there is limited literature detailing possible next steps athletic departments can take to facilitate a welcoming and inclusive environment for LGBTQ student-athletes and employees. Eighteen interviews were completed with coaches, athletic department staff, and a student-athlete. The thematic analysis revealed five themes summarizing potential next steps athletic departments could take: (1) Expand Training and Education Efforts, (2) Increase Acceptance and Accountability Across the Athletic Department, (3) Shift to Action, (4) Increase Visibility of LGBTQ Inclusion, and (5) Develop Resources for LGBTQ Students and Employees. The findings of this study provide concrete implications for creating more inclusive spaces, practices, and policies for LGBTQ individuals within collegiate athletic departments.
Canadian student-athletes and American college athletes face unique stressors related to their sport and have demanding schedules. Although there is limited research specifically focused on the mental health of Canadian student-athletes participating in university sports, existing studies indicate that Canadian student-athletes report increased levels of psychological distress and are more susceptible to mental health issues compared to the general student population. Despite this, many do not seek or receive the treatment they need. This study aimed to identify the barriers to mental health care for Canadian student-athletes competing in Canada. Using a narrative approach, participants identified barriers to mental health treatment, including cultural stigma and voluntary isolation, in addition to a lack of availability of mental health services and the suffering of Canadian student-athletes.
Utilizing the job demands resource (JDR) model, as a basis to learn and better understand the workplace experience of employees in live entertainment, we developed a model specific to sport. Through a three-stage process, the scale was measured and validated with collegiate sport employees. The first stage included subject matter experts (n = 69) openly listing job demands and resources in their workplace, then the second stage included two samples of employed graduate students (sample one: n = 101; sample two: n = 112), and finally phase three included two samples of collegiate sport employees (sample one: n = 249; sample two: n = 239). Based on the results, a job demands resources sport (JDRS) model was developed with nine of the 10 job demands relating to burnout, and all seven job resources relating to both work engagement and burnout. Theoretically and practically, the JDRS model will help sport employees and organizations identify opportunities to reduce burnout and increase engagement so they may better serve stakeholders.
Mental health issues (MHI) among student-athletes have increased in recent years, yet their true prevalence may be underestimated due to the negative consequences surrounding disclosure for athletes. Coaches play a crucial role in providing social support and reducing stigma, making their perspectives imperative to consider when studying student-athlete mental health. This study investigates how college coaches perceive mental health-related information in the transfer recruiting process. Through a 2 X 2 between-subjects online experiment (n = 155), we explore how student-athletes are perceived when their previous college coach does or does not indicate the athlete experiences MHI. Findings indicate a bias in how coaches report the performance of athletes with MHI, despite recognizing the need to avoid discrimination. These results highlight the dual challenge coaches face in managing their implicit biases and inclusive recruitment processes.
The long-term negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health outcomes among college athletes has been well-established. However, mental wellbeing in this population remains understudied. Guided by the conceptual framework of sport resilience, this study examined the impact of COVID-19 on mental wellbeing among NCAA Division I college athletes and, more specifically, the moderation effect of resilience on the relationship between COVID-19 and mental wellbeing. Among college athletics, resilience is believed to not only mitigate mental health concerns but may also promote mental wellbeing. Findings revealed a significant and negative correlation between COVID-19 and mental wellbeing, as well as a positive relationship between resilience and mental wellbeing. Further, resilience was found to significantly moderate the relationship between the impact of COVID-19 and mental wellbeing. Regardless of the impact level of COVID-19, college athletes with high levels of resilience consistently reported greater mental wellbeing than those with medium or low levels of resilience. Although prior research has clearly demonstrated the negative impact of the pandemic on mental health, findings from the current study illustrate the positive influence of resilience. Given the likelihood of future public health pandemics (e.g., avian influenza, measles) and ongoing changes to federal food safety policies—we believe that this study highlights the importance of resilience in navigating challenging circumstances.
Throughout contemporary society, mental health and well-being are viewed as critical components of holistic, biopsychosocial development. This perspective has gained momentum within the context of sport, as athletes utilize their social platform to advocate for mental health resources and supports. However, the diverse and dynamic needs of many athletes remain unmet. Within the current study, six focus groups—which included 27 partners of collegiate athletics—were conducted and included athletes, coaches, athletic trainers, as well as athletic administrators and academic counselors. Using a reflexive thematic analysis, findings indicated that college athlete mental health is understood as holistic well-being and the ability to thrive in daily life. Participants discussed learning about mental health through academic education and training, as well as lived experiences (e.g., dual pandemic). Finally, participants believed more athletes are talking about mental health and that athletes feel most comfortable discussing mental health with their teammates and friends, the team’s sport staff (e.g., athletic trainers, strength and conditioning coaches, assistant coaches), and mental health professionals. These conversations often occurred in the locker room and on team bus rides. However, there was hesitancy discussing mental health with head coaches and because of gender differences.
This study examined factors influencing college student-athletes’ athletic and academic performance built upon self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior. With intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for collegiate athletics, student-athletes can shape attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control, fostering psychological well-being. Psychological well-being could influence performance in athletics and academic achievements. Voluntary student-athletes contacted by coaches participated in the survey. A total of 262 responses from NCAA Division I schools were collected. A mixed-methods approach, consisting of survey responses and interview data, was implemented. Results found psychological well-being played the most salient role in explaining student-athletes' athletic and academic performance self-assessments. With self-growth motivation (intrinsic), the "I can do" spirit was positively related to their psychological well-being, which triggered better athletic and academic performance. Inspirational role models (extrinsic motivation) also prompted psychological well-being. Intrinsic motivation independently affected student-athletes’ self-assessed academic performance. The findings suggest self-reliant growth, supportive inspiration, and a success mindset explain student-athletes’ disciplined fulfillment, competence, and compassion for current and future development in collegiate athletic and academic lives.
This study investigates the relationship between women’s and men's team coaches’ salaries and severance pay at 104 public NCAA Division I-FBS institutions. Using data from the Knight-Newhouse College Athletics Data project from 2014 to 2021, the research reveals that the salaries of men's teams’ coaches grew significantly more than those of women's teams’ coaches, especially among the most competitive schools in FBS (Power conferences). At Power conference schools, the increase in the severance pay for men’s teams’ coaches was 5.3 times larger than the growth in women’s teams’ coaching salaries. The study confirms that the higher the level of competition, there is a growing disproportion of compensation in favor of men’s teams’ coaches over women’s teams’ coaches. FBS institutions’ chase for prestige means paying coaches of men’s teams increasingly more than they pay to the coaches of women’s teams, despite espoused values of gender equity, the intent of Title IX, and economic conditions.
