Purpose The proliferation of mobile technologies has transformed language learning in distance education, positioning mobile apps as essential tools for remote and self-directed learners worldwide. This paper presents an evaluation of the feature quality of mobile language learning apps (MLLAs), showing how design, content and pedagogical features of widely used MLLAs can be systematically analysed and compared.Design/methodology/approach Eight widely used MLLAs - Duolingo, Memrise, Busuu, Falou, LingoDeer, Beelinguapp, FunEasyLearn and Innovative Language Learning - were evaluated using a structured framework. The framework encompasses four dimensions: app background, design, content and pedagogy.Findings The evaluation results highlight the strengths and limitations of each app, as well as the interplay between design, content and pedagogy in supporting learning processes. The results reveal notable disparities in app performance. Busuu emerged as the top-performing app, particularly in content quality and pedagogical features. Beelinguapp showed limited interactivity and applicability. Duolingo, despite its popularity and innovative gamification elements, had shortcomings in content and pedagogy.Originality/value This study advances mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) research by situating MLLA evaluation within the context of distance education. It offers a practical, objective and replicable feature-evaluation methodology for selecting apps that align with learner needs and objectives. The results also contribute empirical evidence on app quality disparities, supporting evidence-based tool selection for language learning.
PurposeThis study aims to map the strategic directions for developing world-class online universities by integrating Industry 5.0 technologies into distance higher education.Design/methodology/approachAn integrated bibliometric–systematic literature review (SLR) approach was employed. Bibliometric analysis, using VOSviewer and the Bibliometrix R package, mapped publication trends, scientific collaboration and thematic structures across 1,556 Scopus-indexed journal articles (2019–2025).FindingsResearch output in this domain grew at 11.88% annually, with strong global collaboration (23.52%) led by China, the USA and Western Europe. Key themes have evolved from basic e-learning toward intelligent, immersive and adaptive systems. Four strategic axes emerged: (1) human-centric artificial intelligence (AI) for personalized and ethical learning, (2) immersive and embodied ecosystems via virtual reality, augmented reality and metaverse, (3) decentralized infrastructures using edge and/or fog computing for real-time adaptation and (4) ethical governance frameworks for trusted AI-based assessment. The study proposes conceptual models such as AI–human pedagogical synergy, immersive–reflexive learning architecture and technological–ethical equilibrium.Originality/valueThis is the first comprehensive study to integrate bibliometric mapping with SLR to directly connect Industry 5.0 technological adoption to world-class online university development. It offers a strategic roadmap linking technology, pedagogy, governance and ethics, redefining “world-class” in the digital age as flexibility, connectivity and personalization – extending beyond elite institutions to diverse higher education providers.
PurposeThis study re-examines the relevance of the ADDIE instructional design model in the context of Generation Alpha, learners born into a world shaped by artificial intelligence (AI) and immersive technologies. It aims to propose a future-oriented adaptation of ADDIE that addresses the digital fluency, interactivity and personalisation expectations of this emerging generation, contributing to open, distance and lifelong learning contexts.Design/methodology/approachThis study employs a content-driven and thematic literature review to synthesise conceptual insights on instructional design, human-computer integration (HInt) and explainable artificial intelligence (XAI). To support conceptual resonance with digitally fluent learners, brief exploratory reflections were gathered from 20 Generation Z undergraduates. These reflections were used as illustrative alignment inputs to inform refinement of the proposed model rather than as empirical validation. The paper further examines how each phase of the ADDIE framework: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation, can be enhanced through interactive, gamified and transparent technologies, aligning instructional design with the evolving needs of AI-mediated learning environments.FindingsThe study suggests that HInt may support learner autonomy and multimodal engagement, while XAI is positioned to strengthen trust and transparency in instructional processes. Exploratory student reflections indicate conceptual alignment between FLEX-ADDIE's design principles and digitally fluent learner expectations, reinforcing its positioning as a forward-looking conceptual framework for inclusive, interpretable and adaptive instructional design in online and open learning.Research limitations/implicationsThis study adopts a conceptually driven design research approach supported by exploratory reflections from 20 Generation Z learners, used as illustrative alignment inputs rather than empirical validation. As such, the scope is limited to conceptual development and does not aim for generalisability. Future research should prioritise empirical evaluation of FLEX-ADDIE across diverse institutional and cultural contexts using experimental, quasi-experimental or longitudinal designs. Foundational studies may examine learner trust, interpretability comprehension and measurable indicators of human-AI co-agency. This study contributes by advancing a theoretically grounded instructional framework that integrates explainable AI and human-centred integration within AI-mediated open and distance learning (ODL) environments.Practical implicationsFLEX-ADDIE offers actionable guidance for ODL institutions to design AI-mediated learning environments that are transparent, adaptive and learner-centred. By integrating HInt and XAI across all ADDIE phases, the framework supports real-time feedback, personalised learning pathways and interpretable analytics. Institutions can apply FLEX-ADDIE to enhance instructional design, strengthen learner trust and improve engagement through multimodal and AI-supported interactions. Implementation may involve AI-capable infrastructure, faculty readiness and governance frameworks addressing data ethics and transparency. The model provides a structured yet flexible approach for integrating AI into instructional design practice.Social implicationsFLEX-ADDIE promotes more equitable and responsible AI use in education by emphasising transparency, interpretability and human-AI co-agency. By integrating explainable AI into instructional design, the framework supports informed learner participation and reduces risks associated with opaque algorithmic decision-making. In ODL contexts, it enables more inclusive and accessible learning experiences for digitally diverse populations. The model also encourages ethical governance practices, helping institutions address concerns related to data privacy, bias and accountability. Overall, FLEX-ADDIE contributes to building trustworthy AI-mediated learning ecosystems that support learner autonomy and social responsibility.Originality/valueThis paper introduces FLEX-ADDIE, a conceptual adaptation of the ADDIE framework that integrates HInt and XAI to address emerging demands in AI-mediated education. It offers a proactive instructional design approach for anticipating the needs of Generation Alpha within ODL contexts. The model's originality lies not in introducing AI tools but in systematically embedding human-AI co-agency and explainable mechanisms across all ADDIE phases. FLEX-ADDIE advances a structured, transparent and adaptive design framework, providing a foundation for future empirical validation and practical implementation.
PurposeThis study examines how three instructional conditions – Conventional Tutorial, Flipped Classroom Design Thinking (FCDT), and an AI-supported FCDT-AI model using ChatGPT – shape undergraduate students' Digital Literacy within an open and distance learning (ODL) environment at Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia. It responds to the growing need for scalable pedagogical models that integrate flipped learning, design thinking, and generative AI across Asian open universities.Design/methodology/approachA within-subjects repeated-measures design was employed with 26 undergraduate students enrolled in an Academic Writing Techniques course. All participants experienced the three conditions in counterbalanced order via TUWEB, the institutional learning management system. Digital Literacy was measured after each condition using a multidimensional performance-based questionnaire. Quantitative analysis used Huynh–Feldt-adjusted repeated-measures ANOVA with Holm-adjusted post-hoc tests, while qualitative reflection logs were examined using reflexive thematic analysis to elucidate mechanisms underlying observed differences.FindingsA significant and substantial main effect of instructional condition was identified, demonstrating a clear performance gradient: Conventional < FCDT < FCDT-AI. The AI-supported condition yielded the highest Digital Literacy scores and the broadest distribution of advanced practices. Qualitative themes further revealed progressive development from basic access and retrieval (Conventional), to structured evaluation and emerging digital production (FCDT), and to multimodal, reflective, and AI-mediated digital engagement (FCDT-AI).Research limitations/implicationsThis study has several limitations. The small sample from a single programme at one ODL institution restricts generalisability, suggesting the need for replication across disciplines, universities, and learner profiles. The reliance on self-reported reflections may introduce subjectivity; integrating learning analytics or artefact analysis would strengthen triangulation. The AI scaffolding was intentionally limited for ethical reasons, meaning future studies could examine varying intensities or types of AI support. Despite these constraints, the findings offer empirically grounded implications for designing scalable, AI-supported flipped learning models in ODL environments.Practical implicationsThe findings provide actionable guidance for ODL institutions seeking to strengthen Digital Literacy at scale. Tutors should integrate structured flipped-learning cycles supported by design thinking to guide learners from basic access toward evaluative and creative digital practices. Incorporating generative AI as guided scaffolding – rather than as an autonomous problem-solver – can expand students' idea generation, support multimodal production, and reduce cognitive load. Curriculum designers can embed FCDT-AI workflows into tutorial manuals, LKMs, and online learning activities to promote consistent digital engagement. Institutions may also develop training programmes to enhance tutors' digital pedagogy and ethical AI facilitation.Social implicationsEnhancing Digital Literacy through structured flipped and AI-supported models can help narrow digital inequities among geographically dispersed ODL learners. The FCDT-AI framework supports more inclusive participation by providing scaffolding that benefits students with lower digital readiness, thereby promoting equitable access to 21st-century competencies. As generative AI becomes more widespread in education and work, developing students' evaluative, ethical, and creative digital practices contributes to a more informed and responsible digital citizenry. The model also supports lifelong learning, empowering working adults to engage confidently in digitally mediated environments and strengthening broader community digital resilience.Originality/valueThe study offers one of the first empirically tested pedagogical models that systematically integrates flipped learning, design thinking, and generative AI to strengthen Digital Literacy in ODL environments. It provides a theoretically grounded and scalable framework (FCDT-AI) that can support Asian open universities in implementing ethical and effective AI-enhanced digital learning.
PurposeThis study addresses a gap in understanding technology adoption across different teacher education pathways. It comparatively analyzes the use, perceptions, and challenges of integrating generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) and emerging technologies between in-service early childhood education (ECE) teachers studying via open and distance education (ODE) and their pre-service, full-time counterparts.Design/methodology/approachA cross-sectional, mixed-methods design was employed. Data were collected from 288 Bachelor of Education in Early Childhood Education students in Hong Kong, comprising 118 in-service distance learners and 170 pre-service full-time students, via an online survey with quantitative and qualitative items.FindingsIn-service distance learners demonstrated a pragmatic, intensive use of GenAI for immediate professional tasks, contrasting with the broader, more exploratory use by pre-service students. Self-selected, optional information technology (IT) training was significantly associated with technology application among the distance learning cohort, whereas mandatory training showed no such effect among the full-time cohort. The cohorts also reported distinct primary barriers: lack of time for in-service learners versus technology complexity for pre-service students.Originality/valueThis study provides the first direct comparative analysis of GenAI integration between in-service ODE and pre-service traditional ECE teacher candidates in Hong Kong. It offers empirical evidence for the value of self-directed, need-based professional development within flexible learning models and highlights the moderating role of professional context and pedagogical beliefs on technology acceptance, challenging one-size-fits-all training approaches. This study underscores the unique potential of ODE platforms not merely as alternative delivery methods, but as primary drivers for immediate, context-driven technological innovation among in-service teachers.
PurposeThis study aims to examine how hybrid-flexible virtual reality (HyFlex-VR) functions as an inclusive open and distance learning approach that widens participation and sustains meaningful learning in vocational education with a limited digital infrastructure. It investigates how learning engagement and satisfaction mediate students' perceptions of inclusiveness of learning access and equitable participation.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a mixed-methods approach with a sequential explanatory design. In the initial stage, a quantitative survey was conducted with 187 respondents and analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling to examine the structural relationships among HyFlex-VR implementation, engagement, satisfaction and inclusivity. Qualitative interviews with teachers and students were conducted to deepen the understanding of learning experiences, participation challenges and perceptions of inclusivity in HyFlex-VR learning environments.FindingsThe results indicate that HyFlex-VR effectively supports inclusive learning within flexible participation conditions typical of open and distance learning in vocational education with digital limitations. HyFlex-VR positively influenced engagement and satisfaction, with satisfaction serving as a key mechanism linking HyFlex-VR to perceived learning inclusivity, while engagement contributed indirectly through satisfaction. Digital infrastructure significantly affects engagement, and digital competence directly enhances inclusivity. Qualitative findings reinforce these results, emphasizing the importance of flexible learning design and well-managed pedagogical experiences across multiple participation modes for diverse learners to achieve learning outcomes.Originality/valueThis study contributes to open and distance education by showing how multimodal HyFlex-VR expands access and flexible participation in digitally constrained vocational contexts, advancing understanding of psychological mechanisms linking flexible learning design with perceived inclusivity.
PurposeThis study explores the transformative impact of open and distance education (ODE) on the lived experiences of learners at Anadolu University, one of the world's largest ODE universities.Design/methodology/approachAdopting a qualitative phenomenological approach, this research draws on the narratives of 953 learners to examine how the ODE experience affects the personal, professional and social dimensions of their lives.FindingsThe findings revealed four overarching themes: being a lifelong learner, turning dreams into reality, starting a new career and overcoming disabling conditions. Learners reported benefits ranging from intellectual and personal growth to overcoming sociocultural, financial and physical barriers to higher education. The results further demonstrate how ODE contributes to individual empowerment, social equity and human development by widening access to higher education among non-traditional and underserved populations.Originality/valueThis study highlights the significance of learner-centered, inclusive and flexible educational models in advancing lifelong learning and supporting the broader goals of sustainable development. By giving voice to learners' experiences, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the value and potential of ODE in transforming lives and fostering inclusive educational environments.
PurposeThis study aims to synthesize and visualize the comprehensive landscape of open pedagogy (OP) in higher education (HE) from 1988 to 2024, based on data from the Scopus database.Design/methodology/approachThe study followed the PRISMA 2020 protocol for literature screening and employed a combination of bibliometric and qualitative content analysis to examine 79 publications on OP.FindingsThe evolution of OP can be divided into three main phases: (1) 1980–1994, marked by early studies in the context of distance education, (2) 1995–2015, during which foundational theoretical frameworks emerged and (3) 2016–2024, characterized by a sharp increase in publications. Most research is concentrated in Western countries, primarily the USA, Canada and the United Kingdom, with journal articles accounting for the majority of publications (84%). This trend underscores the need for further exploration in more diverse global educational contexts. David Wiley is the most cited scholar (193 citations), while Virginia Clinton-Lisell has contributed the highest number of publications, with six. Keyword analysis reveals three major thematic clusters reflecting current research directions: (1) the theoretical and philosophical foundations of OP, (2) pedagogical strategies and learner experiences and (3) the impact of OP on HE.Originality/valueThis study represents the first comprehensive effort to integrate bibliometric methods with qualitative analyses to examine the evolution, philosophy and conceptual development of OP. The resulting visualized insights offer a multilayered perspective on the field's development and provide a valuable foundation for educators and researchers to further advance the open education movement.
This study investigates how digital literacy, digital competence and work behavior influence online teaching productivity among educators in higher education. It aims to understand how these elements interact to enhance digital teaching effectiveness. A mixed-methods approach was employed. Quantitative data were gathered via surveys from 200 educators, and qualitative insights were obtained through interviews with 20 educators. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM-PLS) and thematic analysis. Digital competence had a strong positive impact on teaching productivity. While digital literacy alone did not show a significant direct effect, its influence was enhanced when combined with positive work behavior. The qualitative findings supported the need for continuous training, motivation and adaptability in improving online teaching. This study contributes to the understanding of how digital skills and behavioral factors jointly impact online teaching performance. It provides a framework for integrating professional development with behavioral competencies to enhance digital education.
PurposeThis study explores the factors influencing enrollment and learning preferences of current and prospective open and distance learning (ODL) students in Malaysia. Understanding these factors is essential for addressing challenges related to enrollment and retention in ODL.Design/methodology/approachA convergent parallel mixed-methods design was employed, integrating qualitative and quantitative data. Semi-structured interviews identified factors influencing ODL enrollment, while a survey using a student preference profile assessed learner preferences. Integrating these methods provided a comprehensive understanding of both perspectives.FindingsQualitative findings revealed that time constraints and limited access to human support services are significant factors influencing ODL enrollment. Quantitative results showed that both current and prospective students share similar learning preferences, including a desire for peer and instructor collaboration, flexible learning schedules and an emphasis on deep learning.Research limitations/implicationsThe study focuses on ODL students in Malaysia, which may limit generalizability to other educational contexts. Further research is needed to explore these factors across diverse ODL settings.Practical implicationsBased on these findings, the study recommends that ODL providers enhance student engagement by strengthening instructor interaction, fostering peer collaboration and promoting learner autonomy and independence.Originality/valueThis study offers a novel contribution by examining both prospective and current ODL students, addressing a gap in previous research, which has primarily focused on current students. The findings provide actionable strategies for ODL institutions to improve retention and success rates.
PurposeThis paper explores the underexamined human dimension of artificial intelligence in education (AIED) within open universities (OUs) in developing Asia, focusing on students’ critical AI literacy and how their insights may help shape more humanistic approaches that integrate ethical and sociopolitical concerns.Design/methodology/approachUsing the method of empathy-based stories (MEBS), responses were gathered from 44 postgraduate students at an OU in developing Asia, then thematically analysed and interpreted through critical discourses on technology and education.FindingsWhile most respondents demonstrate some degree of critical AI literacy, this is largely limited to a foundational level marked by curious scepticism. The study underscores the value of student input not merely as feedback but as epistemic contribution to humanistic AIED. It highlights students’ shared concern about preserving what they see as essential human qualities amid accelerating AI integration.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the limited research on the human dimension of AIED in OUs in developing Asia by centring the student body as key stakeholders and advocating a more humanistic approach. It also offers a novel methodological lens through MEBS to provide fresh insight into student engagement with critical AI literacy.
PurposeThe Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) Niche-1 is a specialised programme that Bangladesh Open University (BOU) offers. Between 2014 and 2024, over 48,000 soldiers from the Bangladesh army were enrolled in this programme, with an average pass rate of 90.86% over the past decade. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of the HSC Niche-1 programme, focusing on professional, socioeconomic, and academic development of the soldiers.Design/methodology/approachA mixed-methods research design was followed, using both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. To gather qualitative insights, 225 graduated learners participated in structured interviews, while 25 participants participated in three focus group discussions (FGDs).FindingsA substantial number of participants reported that the programme has positively influenced their personal, professional and social lives. This has played a crucial role in securing current employment by improving their service performance. Additionally, the programme has created valuable job opportunities for participants after retirement. The study shows that the HSC Niche-1 programme is contributing to the professional development of armed forces personnel and supporting the country’s economic growth.Research limitations/implicationsThe cantonment of the Bangladesh Army and the Bangladesh Navy or Air Force base are highly restricted areas. It was challenging to stay there or collect data for any study. The researcher contacted the appropriate personnel and requested their assistance gathering information regarding the Niche-1 programme. They cited institutional restrictions, security concerns and military secrecy as the main reasons for their refusal to assist. Then the researcher presented his FGD checklist and survey questionnaire. Upon evaluation, they made some modifications and verbally consented to collect data on the Niche-1 programme. However, they were overly concerned about any written document. They did not put their signatures on the attendance sheet in FGD sessions. The researcher was also aware of all sorts of sensitivities.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the growing inclusive and flexible learning dialogue. The HSC Niche-1 programme is different from the traditional educational framework and it can bridge the gap between service commitment and the academic development of armed forces soldiers. This study offers immense perceptions of the role of academic interventions and professional development amongst Niche-1 learners.
PurposeThe recently emerging agile-blended learning (AB learning) is novel to researchers and practitioners alike, and previous research has not examined the characteristics that the AB learning approach has presented in metropolitan learners. The significance of the AB learning approach has been neglected.Design/methodology/approachThis systematic review aims to explore the AB learning strategies for metropolitan learners by examining recent literature from 2020 to 2024 using the PRISMA searching process, coding and analysis. The review included 68 studies after screening articles obtained from the Web of Science and Scopus databases.FindingsThe results present the current focus of AB learning in literature as flexibility, learner autonomy, technology mediation and collaboration of the AB learning approach for metropolitan learners. The review also provides implications for the future directions of AB learning research.Originality/valueThis paper presents an evaluation of the AB learning approach, specifically designed for metropolitan learners and highlights its distinctive characteristics inherent to AB learning.
PurposeThe purpose of the paper is to investigate teachers' and students' perceptions of the quality of open online courses by identifying critical design elements that foster deep learning and 21st century skill acquisition, bridging the gap between the rapid expansion of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and their actual educational effectiveness.Design/methodology/approachUsing a mixed-method approach, we analyzed data from more than 200 learners through structured questionnaires assessing skill mastery and learning experiences. These findings were triangulated with semi-structured interviews of 10 instructors at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL). Quantitative and qualitative data convergence ensured methodological rigor.FindingsFindings indicate a discrepancy between learner outcomes and instructional design in MOOCs. A notable gap exists between the design intentions of instructors and the learners' perceived achievement of deep learning outcomes. Inadequate professional scaffolding restricts learners' capacity to apply competencies in real-world situations. Institutional challenges continue to impede the development of effective online-offline learning communities in the context of technological and pedagogical reforms.Originality/valueThis research presents a Global South perspective on MOOC design, proposing context-sensitive strategies to enhance learner-instructor interactions. This work presents frameworks for aligning course design with deep-learning objectives and the development of 21st century competencies, thereby improving the quality of open education initiatives.
PurposeThis study explores the relationship between digital citizenship and religious moderation in shaping students' character at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 2 (SMAN 2/Public Senior High School 2) Bandung Indonesia (BI), a school employing blended and online learning.Design/methodology/approachUsing a descriptive qualitative method, data were collected via literature review, educator interviews and participatory observation of students' digital activities on online learning platforms and social media.FindingsFindings reveal that integrating digital citizenship with religious moderation in open and distance education environments reduces digital radicalization risk, enhances intercultural understanding and strengthens moral resilience. Learning practices included curriculum integration with flipped classroom strategies using video materials, project-based learning (PjBL) through Instagram poster campaigns promoting tolerance and PjBL discussing religious hoaxes on social media. Key materials were delivered via asynchronous videos and interaine forums, reflecting distance education practices.Research limitations/implicationsThe research emphasizes how digital citizenship principles-ethics, literacy and security-integrate with religious moderation values to develop tolerant, critical and responsible traits.Practical implicationsSchools can promote inclusive digital behavior and religious moderation by running campaigns, creating ethical guidelines, using interactive learning and supporting student-led programs to build a school culture that values diversity and responsibility.Social implicationsCombining digital citizenship and religious moderation in education helps teachers build students' moral values, tolerance and empathy, shaping them into responsible individuals in the digital age.Originality/valueThe originality emphasizes the need for teacher training in digital pedagogy, curriculum support for digital literacy and religious moderation and community engagement to foster a positive digital learning environment.
This research examines the essential competencies open university students in Thailand require to meet the demands of the sustainable smart manufacturing industry. The study addresses skills gaps in technological, green, 21st-century and future-thinking dimensions, aligning with Thailand’s 4.0 strategy and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. A mixed-methods approach was employed, integrating quantitative data from a survey of 421 undergraduate students, selected through stratified sampling and qualitative insights from 31 industry experts, chosen using purposive sampling. Competency assessments were validated using a four-dimensional model and analysed through descriptive statistics to compare expert expectations with student self-assessments. The study identified significant discrepancies between expert expectations and student self-assessments, particularly in advanced technological skills (e.g. robotics and Internet of Things [IoT]) and green competencies (e.g. lifecycle assessment). While students demonstrated moderate proficiency in 21st-century and interpersonal skills, comprehensive curriculum adjustments are required to address these critical gaps. The findings highlight the need for curriculum reforms integrating blended learning, hands-on practical training and academic–industry collaboration. These measures are critical for equipping students with the skills required for sustainable smart manufacturing. This study offers a validated, multi-dimensional competency framework tailored to the sustainable smart manufacturing industry. It provides actionable insights for educators and policymakers to bridge educational and industrial gaps and ensure workforce readiness for an evolving technological landscape.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is an emerging research variable. It aims to enhance students' cognitive and creative abilities through the use of AI applications to better think and perform in their various academic fields. Nowadays, AI tools and applications are rapidly growing in the education sector and have not yet been fully studied in online and distance learning (ODL) settings with respect to students’ creativity (SC). Based on the theory of planned behavior, the objective of this study is to highlight the role of AI in SC in ODL education. This research also investigates the mediating role of happiness between the use of AI and SC. The study used a mixed-method approach to measure the students’ perceptions, integrating both quantitative and qualitative tools and techniques. Data were collected through a questionnaire and structured interviews of ODL students through convenience sampling. The quantitative data were analyzed through the PROCESS macro in SPSS, whereas the qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis. Findings reveal that AI is positively associated with SC. Additionally, the results show that AI is positively related to SC indirectly through its impact on happiness, highlighting the mediating role of psychological well-being in the relationship between AI and creativity. In today’s diverse and highly competitive educational environment, the psychological and emotional well-being of the students has a strong impact on their perceived behavioral control and attitudes. This study provides novel implications for policymakers, educationists and teachers to enhance SC by understanding the underlying mechanism through happiness.
