Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), a common medicinal plant, possesses diuretic, anti-inflammatory and digestive properties. The potential use of Dandelion root extract (DRE) for its anticancer effect has been gained. This paper is a summary of existing evidence on its use in cancer management. In vivo results show the selective toxicity of DRE towards different cancer cells while maintaining the normal cells. This is demonstrated in the preclinical studies. Its anticancer activity can be explained by bioactive compounds like sesquiterpene lactones and phenolic acids that are involved in the regulation of such critical signaling pathways as MAPK, PI3K/Akt, and NF-KB. These processes lead to suppression of tumor cell growth, activation of apoptosis, regulation of autophagy and inhibition of angiogenesis. Although there is promising preclinical evidence, there is limited clinical evidence. Hence, clinical trials ought to be conducted in a well-defined manner to prove its safety as well as therapeutic effectiveness. Comprehensively, DRE is one of the promising natural agents of anticancer therapy in the future.
Microemulsions are stable nanoscale drug delivery systems formed from oil, water, surfactants, and cosurfactants, with droplet sizes of 10-200 nm. They offer high solubility, easy preparation, stability, and the ability to incorporate both lipophilic and hydrophilic molecules. Their nanoscale droplets increase skin contact, while SFs temporarily disrupt the barrier to improve absorption. Higher stability of microemulsions can be achieved by using Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams. Non-ionic SFs like tween and span, along with short-chain alcohol CSFs, are common. The oil phase includes fatty acid esters and vegetable or natural oils with penetration-enhancing properties. A quality target product profile is quintessential to defining the desired microemulsion properties. Critical quality attributes define the physicochemical properties of microemulsions, their target values, and significance. Evaluation involves droplet size, pH, viscosity, zeta potential, conductivity, stability, and in vitro release. Studies show drugs like cyclosporine, methotrexate, and tacrolimus in microemulsions improve skin retention, reduce systemic absorption and toxicity, and produce positive histopathological effects. Microemulsions can be formulated as gels, offering high permeability, spreadability, and sustained release. The manuscript systematically presents a sequential, logical workflow that mirrors actual industrial development processes. It systematically reviews advances in research, preparation methods, and evaluation techniques for microemulsions used in transdermal drug delivery, especially for psoriasis treatment. The article lacks original experimental data; all information and conclusions are based on published literature to support formulation development and industrial application in this area.
Tarenna asiatica is widely used in traditional medicine to treat a range of skin diseases. The current study focused on the stem extracts of the plant to evaluate its phytochemical composition, gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) profile, and antibacterial and antioxidant efficacy. Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, and phenols were detected by qualitative phytochemical screening. The ethanol and chloroform extracts showed the highest phenol and flavonoid contents, respectively. The ethanol extract exhibited significant radical scavenging ability in the DPPH assay and reducing power assay. Antibacterial activity was assessed using the well diffusion method. The chloroform extract demonstrated significant antibacterial activity, exhibiting the highest zone of inhibition against Escherichia coli (17.67 ± 0.33 mm), while the methanolic extract indicated no activity. The chloroform extract had the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value against E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus, measuring a value of 0.156 mg/mL. In thin-layer chromatography (TLC) bioautography, inhibition zones for all tested pathogens were observed at Rf values of 0.16 and 0.37. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of retusine and salvigenin as the chief flavonoid compounds in the chloroform extract. The results of the present study highlight the potential value of T. asiatica stem extracts as a source of antibacterial agents, especially the chloroform extract.
Persicaria decipiens is a traditional medicinal plant to treat skin conditions such as ringworm and bites from snakes, dogs and insects used by the people of Nagaland, India. The study investigates and compares the phytoconstituents compounds and antibacterial activity of Persicaria decipiens fresh and dry leaves extracts. Fresh and dry leaves of Persicaria decipiens were extracted using hexane and methanol in a Soxhlet apparatus. The extracts were investigated to phytochemical screening using standard procedures. The antibacterial efficacy of the extracts at various concentrations 50 mg, 100 mg, 150 mg, 200 mg, 250 mg and 300 mg were tested against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis using agar well diffusion method. DMSO were used as negative control and ampicillin at 2 mcg were used as standard positive control respectively. The fresh leaf methanol and hexane extracts were more effective than dry leaves methanol and hexane extracts against the test bacteria. The antibacterial activity of fresh leaf methanol extract was observed at 300 mg concentration with 21±1 mm inhibition zone against Klebsiella pneumoniae, while for the dry leaf methanol extracts was observed at 300 mg concentration with zone of inhibition 7.67±0.57 mm against Bacillus subtilis. The fresh hexane extracts were observed at 200 mg with zone of inhibition of 16.66±0.57 mm against Bacillus subtilis while for the dry leaf hexane extracts was observed at 300 mg with 10±1 mm zone of inhibition against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Phytochemical screening of the extracts results that both fresh and dried leaf methanol extracts contained alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols and flavonoids. Also, it is observed that the fresh leaf hexane extracts confirmed the presence of steroids while the dried leaf hexane extract was tested positive for tannins. These studies provide information about Persicaria decipiens that contain excellent phytochemical compounds and fresh and dry leaf extracts can be used as antibacterial agent.
AI promised to reinvent drug discovery: compress timelines, reduce attrition, and unlock previously undruggable drug targets. A decade of substantial capital investment has produced more than 173 clinical programs and landmark structural biology breakthroughs, including the 2024 Nobel Prize–winning AlphaFold platform. Yet as of early 2026, no AI-discovered drug has received regulatory approval. This review analyses the clinical evidence systematically, examining Phase I and Phase II trial outcome data across AI-native biopharma pipelines. The data reveal a bifurcated picture: AI demonstrably outperforms historical industry norms in Phase I (80–90% vs. ~52% success), reflecting genuine superiority in molecular safety engineering and ADMET prediction, while Phase II success (~40%) remains statistically indistinguishable from conventional drug development (~37%). The persistent Phase II failure rate maps onto a single root cause: target hypothesis validity. AI has not yet improved the probability of selecting the correct biological premise. This paper identifies where AI adds value (protein structure prediction, lead optimisation, timeline compression), where it does not (target validation, patient stratification, animal model-to-human translation), and charts the emerging frontier of human-genetics- multi-omics integration and biomedical foundation models as the next phase of AI-enabled progress.
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complicated CNS disorders that particularly affect the medial temporal lobe and neocortical area of the brain. AD is characterised by the progressive depletion of neurons in the cortical and hippocampal areas of the brain. The main symptoms are memory loss, amnesia, motor disturbance, mood change, and so on. Alzheimer's disease was 1.9% standard in the South Asian region in 2005; between 2020 and 2040, it's expected to reach an estimated 3.6M to 7.5M cases, respectively. Conversely, a pathological condition is characterized by alterations in microtubule stabilization and amyloid beta formation, resulting from increased oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Impairment of cerebral ROS formation is associated with brain mitochondrial dysfunction and deregulated signal transduction. The timely acquisition of relevant animal models for drug candidate screening represents a significant obstacle in neurological research and drug discovery. In this review, we have discussed various in vivo animal models which are helpful for neurological studies. In the end, the treatment for Alzheimer's Disease, modifying treatment strategies, is still under extensive research. We discussed various therapeutic targets to modify the treatment strategies and current drug treatment for AD.
Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) has become a pillar technology in the field of analytical sciences, fuelled by ongoing improvements in mass spectrometer design and performance. The history of LC–MS instrument evolution is reviewed here, highlighting the shift from conventional quadrupole-based instruments to state-of-the-art high-resolution devices like time-of-flight (TOF) and Orbitrap analyzers. This review discusses how these technologies have enhanced analytical performance in terms of sensitivity, mass accuracy, dynamic range, and throughput. Quadrupole devices, with their ruggedness and quantitative accuracy, formed the bedrock for regular analyses, whereas TOF and Orbitrap technologies have made deeper qualitative assessments possible through high-resolution accurate-mass (HRAM) determinations. The combination of hybrid systems e.g., Q-TOF and Q-Orbitrap y and data collection strategies has further broadened the utility of LC–MS applications in areas from proteomics and metabolomics to environmental and clinical studies. This review points out the major technological advancements in mass analyzers.
Drug-resistant gonorrhea and the absence of a gonococcal immunization have prompted a renewed emphasis on medicinal plants as the main source of innovative treatments. In Ethiopia, gonorrhea has been treated using medicinal plants such as Phytolacca dodecandra, Ranunculus multifidus, Clematis longicauda, and Impatiens ethiopica. However, these plants’ ability to combat gonococci hasn't been assessed. The purpose of this investigation was to confirm the in vitro antigonococcal properties and examine the phytochemical constituents of these plants. A lab-based investigation was conducted. The dry, coarsely crushed plant samples were extracted by maceration with 80 percent methanol. Standard procedures were used to perform phytochemical screening of the crude extracts. The anti-gonococcal activity test was performed employing the agar well-diffusion method on gonococcal agar at extract concentrations of 200, 100, and 50 mg/ml. The standard treatment used was ceftriaxone 0.05 mg/disc. Using the broth dilution method, the minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations of the crude extract were ascertained. The plants contain secondary metabolites like terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and steroids. P. dodecandra roots showed promising anti-gonococcal activity against Neisseria gonorrheae clinical isolate-03 at a dose of 200 mg/ml, with the largest growth zone of inhibition (21.67 mm). The maximum concentration of all the plant extracts demonstrated remarkable growth inhibition in comparison to the placebo control. The methanolic extracts from the experimental plants have an MIC range of 6.125 to 100 mg/ml. The results showed that the MBC ranged from 25 to 200 mg/ml. The investigated herbs exhibited anti-gonococcal effects. Thus, thorough animal and in vitro experiments are required to ascertain the phytotherapeutic benefits of these plants in treating gonorrhea.
Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. is an ethnomedicinal plant traditionally used for treating inflammatory and infectious disorders. In the current research, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction of bioactive compounds from X. tomentosa leaves. A Box–Behnken Design (BBD) was applied to evaluate the effects of solvent concentration (40–80%), extraction temperature (40–70°C), and extraction time (20–60 min) on phytochemical yield and biological activity. The optimized extraction conditions yielded elevated levels of total flavonoids (11.8 mg/g), total phenolics (0.98 mg/g), and total terpenoids (0.48 mg/g). The extract demonstrated strong antioxidant activity, with DPPH radical scavenging inhibition ≥ 83.2%, along with significant antimicrobial activity (maximum inhibition zone: 20.14 mm). GC–MS analysis identified multiple compounds with potential biological activity, supporting the observed antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. These findings demonstrate that statistically optimized extraction significantly enhances the bioactivity of X. tomentosa and provide scientific validation for its traditional medicinal applications.
Circadian rhythm (biological rhythm) disorders alter the body's natural sleep-wake cycles and have been associated with mood fluctuations, cardiovascular problems and cognitive degeneration. Notable disorders that result from an imbalance between an individual's internal circadian rhythms and external factors, such as light exposure and social responsibilities, can lead to conditions like delayed sleep-wake phase disorder (DSPD), advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPD) and Shift work disorder (SWSD). The pineal gland secretes melatonin, a hormone that promotes sleep and indicates darkness to stabilize the circadian rhythms. This study explores the impact of melatonin on the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the brain's central clock, and its potential therapeutic applications for disorders that disrupt the circadian rhythm. Melatonin treatment lowers sleep onset latency (SOL), advances sleep-wake cycles in individuals with DSPD, and enhances morning alertness, according to clinical investigations. It improves the quality of sleep, which has some advantages for ASPD, especially in older persons. Melatonin lessens daytime drowsiness, eases insomnia, and helps sleep patterns adapt to work schedules for SWSD. In addition to discussing ideal dosage, possible adverse effects, and the necessity of customized care, this review highlights the significance of more research on the long-term safety of melatonin, medication interactions, and its application in combination therapy for disorders of the circadian rhythm.
The study focused on developing and statistically optimizing sitagliptin-loaded fast-dissolving tablets (FDTs) utilizing a systematic DoE-based approach to enhance oral drug delivery and patient compliance in type 2-diabetes management. FDTs were prepared via direct compression with varying concentrations of variable excipients, Crospovidone (superdisintegrant) and Avicel 102 (binder) as part of a 3² full factorial design. The study assessed their impact on formulation attributes specifically hardness and disintegration time, alongside pre- and post-compression characteristics, dissolution performance, and stability over time. All developed formulations met pharmacopoeial standards. The optimized batch (B7) disintegrated in 34±3 seconds with adequate hardness of 4.5±0.09 kg/cm² and achieved 99.11% drug release within 30 minutes. Statistical analysis confirmed significant effects of both excipients, with crospovidone having a greater influence on disintegration. Stability studies over three months indicated no significant changes in key parameters. The results demonstrated a robust, cost-effective sitagliptin FDTs with improved dissolution properties, particularly beneficial for those with dysphagia or requiring immediate pharmacological response.
The use of medicinal plants in traditional healthcare practices presents an exciting opportunity for novel antimicrobial agents. This research study investigated the antibacterial properties of Rumex nepalensis, a common ethnomedicinal plant, against Staphylococcus aureus, which is a clinically significant pathogen that causes a wide variety of human infections. The crude leaf extracts of R. nepalensis were tested using the agar well diffusion test. and the results showed significant inhibitory activity against S. aureus. Following phytochemical screening, compounds were identified using Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Seven of the twelve bioactive compounds that were found - Chrysophanol, Hastatusides A, L-Phenylalanine, Schisandrin C, Cis-p-Coumaric acid, Pinoresinol, and Βeta-Caryophyllene - met the requirements for drug-likeness and were chosen for further analysis. The interaction of these drugs with S. aureus virulence-associated protein targets, including Gamma Haemolysin, Exfoliative Toxin, Lysostaphin-type Metalloendopeptidase, and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1, was evaluated using In-Silico Molecular Docking experiments. Strong binding affinities were shown by Chyrsophanol with all four targets, notably with Exfoliative Toxin, Lysostaphin, and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin. These results suggest that Chrysophanol is a potential bioactive component that supports R. nepalensis antibacterial action.
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector-borne disease that progress mainly by lowering of immune protective cells Th1 and the appearance of cells Th2 that promote illness therefore the treatment of this disease relies on improving the immune condition of the host. Currently used treatment options of VL are Amphotericin B (AmB) and its liposomal formulation i.e., Ambisome. But these treatment options are not safe as these drugs have many side effects and limitations like hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, VL relapse and PKDL conversion. This has prompted the search for alternative treatment options amongst herbal drugs; Thus, This study investigated Tinospora cordifolia and Withania somnifera's antileishmanial potentia, either in combination or alone. In vivo experiments demonstrated a substantial decrease in BALB/c mice in the spleen parasitic burden. Moreover, the treatment effectively modulated immune response of the host, leading to Th1 polarization, crucial for eliminating Leishmania donovani. This method not only targets the parasite but also fortifies the immune system, offering a safer, cost-effective alternative to current therapies for Visceral leishmaniasis, which are often limited by toxicity and resistance.
The primary motto of the review is to analyze the current pathology and pharmacotherapy of cervical tumor; in addition to that we focus on creating awareness for early detection and vaccination to diminish the incidence of disease and death in developing countries. Cervical tumor occupied a second place among the malignance in women with primary contributor to morbidity and mortality. Approximately 500,000 females are detected with cervical tumors annually, leading to 300,000 fatalities globally. The disease is largely preventable. HPV types 16 and 18 are the primary etiological agents of cervical tumor. Accurate and early detection of abnormal cytologic changes prevents the progression of the disease. Standard treatment involves either radical surgery or radiotherapy. Childbearing is therefore impossible after the treatments. The intensity-modulated radiotherapy, one of the advance radiotherapy technology aids reduced medication effects for women with locally advanced diseases. Cervical dysplastic lesions are prevented in eligible women who have not previously contracted the vaccine-specific HPV strains by receiving an HPV vaccination. Treatment decisions are primarily based on the stage determined by clinical FIGO staging. In wealthier nations, the utilize of pap smears has substantially decreased the occurrence of cervical tumor in low- and middle-income nations without examination and HPV vaccination programs. Approximately 90% of cervical cancer occurrences arise. Additionally, it emphasizes how important it is to prioritize efforts, especially in low- and middle-income nations. Its main goal is to raise awareness among women to lower the incidence of cervical tumor.
Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide, with an increasing global burden and significant disparities in its incidence and treatment. Hybrid nanoparticles (LHNPs) represent a cutting-edge advancement in nanotechnology-based drug delivery for cancer therapy. These nanoparticles combine lipid carriers' biocompatibility with polymeric nanoparticles' structural stability, resulting in improved drug solubility, controlled release, and enhanced tumour targeting. LHNPs enhance drug delivery to cancer sites through both passive and active targeting strategies, leveraging the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect along with ligand-based targeting to increase drug concentration at tumor locations. The formulation of LHNPS involves various preparation techniques, including high-pressure homogenisation, solvent evaporation, and nanoprecipitation, ensuring stability and optimal drug loading efficiency. Their structural composition consists of a lipid matrix encapsulating a hydrophilic or hydrophobic drug core, allowing versatile drug delivery applications. Characterisation techniques such as dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential analysis, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) assess particle size, surface charge, and morphology, which are crucial for therapeutic efficacy. Despite their advantages, challenges such as large-scale manufacturing, long-term stability, and potential cytotoxicity require further research. The integration of LHNPs into cancer therapy offers a promising approach to overcoming conventional treatment limitations, enhancing patient outcomes with reduced systemic toxicity.
The "King of Spices," Piper nigrum, is one of 75 spice varieties cultivated in India. Adi pepper, a farmer's variety registered with the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights (PPVFR) Authority, was compared with P. nigrum based on its phytochemical, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities. Despite comparable phytochemical screening, Adi pepper ethanolic extract had greater total phenolic and flavonoid content (30.66±0.13 mg GAE/g DCE and 43.08±0.04 mg QE/g DCE). In antioxidant analyses, Adi pepper ethanolic extract exhibited a lower IC50 value in the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay (IC50 = 85.14±0.12) compared with P. nigrum (IC50 = 94±0.12). Reducing ability was also higher in Adi pepper ethanolic extract (0.431±0.00) compared to P. nigrum (0.254±0.00) in the reducing power assay. Adi pepper ethanol extract also presented a greater inhibition zone against S. typhi (18±0.00 mm) and lower Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values (0.625 mg/mL) among tested pathogens. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and insecticidal alkaloids as well as amide-type alkaloids in both types. Both peppers, in general, showed antioxidant and antibacterial activity, but Adi pepper slightly more, perhaps due to specific phytoconstituents. Further investigation of such bioactive components could enhance their culinary, medicinal, and other applications.
Crystal engineering is a field focused on designing and developing molecular solid particles with desired properties and functionalities. The crystal habit and polymorphic form of a substance play a crucial role in determining its physicochemical, mechanical, and biological behavior. Modifying the crystal habit alone can lead to the formation of distinct morphological forms, which directly influence particle orientation. Such alterations significantly affect critical parameters including flowability, packing density, compressibility, syringebility, and dissolution behavior of pharmaceutical powders. Particle size enlargement is typically accomplished through established conventional techniques, which are widely adopted in pharmaceutical manufacturing. The main objective of this study was to formulate sphere shaped crystal agglomerates of Darunavir Ethanolate (DRVE) having enhanced flowability, compression ability, solublisation property and dissolution. DVRE spherical crystals were developed by using 22 full factorial design approach. Plasdone 630 as polymer and methylene dichloride (MDC) as bridging solvent were considered as independent variables and their effect was studied on drug content and solubility considering as a dependent variable. The optimised spherical crystals were used in tablet formulations. The drug content of the spherical agglomerates ranged between 89.80 (SAD6) to 95% (SAD2). The solubility of the spherical agglomerates was ranged between 0.20 (SA6) to 1.80 mg/ml (SAD2) with 11.25-fold enhancement in solubility. FTIR study indicated the excellent compatibility of the drug with polymer used in formulation. XRD study suggested the amorphization of pure DVRE during the agglomeration process. The optimised SA2 spherical agglomerates were used to manufacture immediate release tablets by DC method (F1). Presence of spherical agglomerates has significantly improved the flow properties as well as compressibility of the blend in comparison pure DVRE. The drug release of F1 batch was found to be faster in comparison to F2 and F3 formulations. Nearly 100% release was observed within 15 minutes from F1. The study concludes that the use of spherical agglomerates leads to enhanced flow properties, compressibility, solubility, and dissolution behavior.
Urolithiasis (kidney stones) is a prevalent urinary system disorder affecting populations worldwide and has been recognized as a long-standing human ailment, contributing to renal failure while various conventional therapies exist for urolithiasis, they are often associated with undesirable side effects. In India, numerous herbal formulations are utilized for treating urolithiasis, known for their efficacy and safety. Specifically, extracts from Celosia argentea seeds, Cissampelos pareira roots, and Bergenia ligulata rhizomes exhibit anti-urolithitic activity. However, combining these herbs in a particular ratio often yields greater therapeutic effects and reduces toxicity compared to using single extracts. Therefore, this research designed to scientifically evaluate anti-urolithic efficacy of polyherbal formulation against urolithiasis using an ethylene glycol (EG)-induced model in rats. Rats were administered EG (0.75 v/v) with water for 28 days to cause renal stone formation, and simultaneously received a single dose of the herbal formulation orally once daily. On day 28, 24-hour urine and serum samples were collected, along with kidney homogenate, for biochemical analysis and histological examination. Cystone was used as a standard herbal formulation for comparison. The co-administration of the polyherbal formulation resulted in substantial (P < 0.001) decrease in urinary and serum levels of renal stone promoters such as calcium, oxalate, phosphate, uric acid, and urea, as well as a significant increase in magnesium and citrate. Histological analysis demonstrated reduced renal cell damage in the treatment group. These results indicate that the polyherbal formulation possesses anti-urolithic activity and holds promise for the treatment of renal calculi.
Nanotechnology has developed as a key part of investigation in modern-day material science in recent decades. Biosynthesized nanoparticles garnered substantial significance due to their accelerated synthesis, economic viability and environmentally benign characteristics. The current study uses Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees leaf extract to produce ZNO NPs in an ecologically safe manner. These nanoparticles were created using zinc acetate dihydrate utilizing extract of leaves as biological reductant. Created nanoparticles were evaluated using UV-Visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy. Characteristics of produced nanoparticles and their constituent elements were analysed through XRD (X-ray diffraction). The ZNO NPs exhibited crystalline morphology. According to SEM imaging, the ZNO NPs appeared to possess a non-uniform spheroid morphology. The functional groups involved in capping along with reduction processes were identified using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Efficacy of ZNO-NPs may be associated with their size and shape as observed through scanning electron microscope (SEM) as well as transmission electron microscope (TEM). Our investigation assessed efficiency of ZNO-NPs as potent bactericidal agents against Echerichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus albus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. This study demonstrates that zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized via a green approach possess intrinsic antibacterial efficacy, supporting their potential application in the development of antimicrobial therapeutics. Additional studies are essential to explore the mechanistic pathways and determine the cytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles.
Especially in countries with lower and middle income levels like India, tuberculosis poses a serious worldwide health concern. Numerous individuals still get the disease every year despite advancements. The spread, causes, Global and national data and difficulties in diagnosing and treating tuberculosis in India are all examined in detail in this review. A major concern is latent tuberculosis infection, which can develop into active tuberculosis, particularly in people with weak immune systems, chronic illnesses like diabetes, or in high-risk environments such as prisons or healthcare settings. Drug-resistant in tuberculosis, including multidrug-resistant strains adds complexity to treatment efforts. Newer technologies, such as the Interferon-Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) and molecular diagnostics, hold promise despite the limitations of traditional diagnostic techniques like the Tuberculin Skin Test. Co-infections like HIV and social factors like poverty, nutrient deficiencies, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure are major contributors to the spread of tuberculosis.
