This study proposes a method for determining earthquake focal depths by combining the sPn phase with the waveform cross-correlation technique, based on waveform data recorded by the Fujian Seismic Network from the 2024 M 7.3 Hualien offshore earthquake and the 2025 M 6.2 Tainan earthquake. The Pn phase onset was precisely aligned using waveform cross-correlation, and the arrival time difference (Delta t) between the sPn and Pn phases was extracted via a sliding time-window correlation method. The focal depths were derived using a layered velocity model for the Taiwan region. Results show that the calculated focal depth for the Hualien earthquake is 23.1 km (Delta t = 6.9 s), with a relative error of 2.7% compared to the official result (22.5 km) from the Central Weather Administration of Taiwan. For the Tainan earthquake, the depth is 17.9 km (Delta t = 6.1 s), with a relative error of 13.3%. In this study, we show that a cross-correlation threshold of 0.8 and a bandpass filtering of 0.1-0.3 Hz are efficient to suppress noise and significantly improve depth accuracy for shallow earthquakes with depth <30 km. Compared to traditional travel-time location methods, this approach exhibits superior noise resistance and computational efficiency. Future work will focus on optimizing 3D velocity structures, integrating multiple phases, and applying deep learning techniques such as convolutional neural networks, aiming to improve the results in a more reliable and automatic way, and to provide efficient support on earthquake emergency response.
Seismic hazard assessment (SHA) is crucial for mitigating earthquake hazards, particularly in tectonically active regions. This study critically examines the emerging roles of 3D and 4D geophysical and geological modelling in assessing SHA, focusing on advancements, applications, and limitations. 3D geophysical modelling provides high-resolution spatial representations of fault networks, stress distributions, and seismic-prone zones. In contrast, 4D geophysical modelling integrates temporal dynamics to analyze subsurface variations or fault systems over time. Based on previous studies, the quantitative data highlight the effectiveness of real-time seismic monitoring, with stress accumulation rates ranging from 0.01% to 50% during seismic events. Time-lapse seismic data improves forecasting precision, with early warning detection reducing seismic uncertainties by over 30%. Additionally, studies show that enhanced fluid migration tracking using 4D seismic modelling, leading to a 25% increase in hydrocarbon recovery efficiency. These advancements aim in urban planning, infrastructure resilience, and hazard mitigation strategies. However, challenges remain in data acquisition, computational demands, and model interpretation. The integration of artificial intelligence and high-performance computing is expected to improve predictive modelling accuracy, ensuring more effective SHA. The findings emphasize the importance of geophysical modelling in disaster preparedness, reinforcing the need for technological advancements to enhance seismic hazard mitigation strategies and infrastructure safety.
The Philippines' current seismic design framework, grounded in outdated uniform hazard approaches, fails to ensure consistent structural safety due to regional variations in seismic risk and structural fragility. This study aims to develop the first risk-targeted seismic hazard maps for the Philippines, adopting the ASCE 7–16 framework and integrating updated probabilistic seismic hazard data from the SHADE Project. Through the application of risk-integral formulations, the annual probability of structural collapse was computed by convolving seismic hazard curves and lognormal fragility functions. A parametric analysis was conducted using varying fragility dispersions (β = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8) and target collapse probabilities (Pfail) to evaluate their effects on risk coefficients (CR), conditional collapse probabilities, and hazard curve slopes (η) for spectral accelerations at 0.2 s and 1.0 s. Results reveal that higher fragility dispersions and lower collapse targets significantly increase required design motions, particularly in short-period structures. The selected baseline parameters, β = 0.6 and Pfail = 2 × 10−4 (1 % collapse risk in 50 years), yielded consistent collapse probabilities and aligned with international standards. Spatial analyses showed elevated CR in high-hazard zones such as Western Luzon, Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, while a strong correlation between CR and η underscores the importance of hazard curve shape in seismic design. All computations assumed rock site conditions, with future work recommended to address site-specific effects.
On 28 March 2025, a strong MW 7.7 earthquake struck the seismic gap in the central section of the Sagaing Fault in Myanmar, causing significant damages and casualties in Myanmar and neighboring countries. Major earthquakes like this are expected to transfer stresses to nearby active regions and change their seismic hazards in the near future. In this study, based on a stratified viscoelastic model and a coseismic slip model, we calculated the co- and post-seismic Coulomb stress change (△CFS) imparted by the MW 7.7 Myanmar earthquake to the main active faults in the adjacent southwestern Yunnan region in China. Our results show that five fault segments experience up to 3 kPa of coseismic stress increase, including the Longling-Lancang Fault, the Nantinghe Fault, the Menglian Fault, the Heihe Fault, and the Red River Fault, respectively. The pattern of postseismic △CFS is similar to that of coseismic △CFS, suggesting that with the increasing elapsed time, the stress level continues to increase in these fault zones. The coseismic auxiliary stress fields show that the orientation of the principal tensile stress is predominantly NE-SW in the northern part of the southwestern Yunnan region, and shows clockwise rotation to NW-SE in the south. This stress regime controls the additional slip motion, consistent with that reflected by the coseismic shear stress change. Combined with other geophysical and geodetic data, we propose that more attention should be paid to the Longling-Lancang Fault, the Nantinghe Fault, the Menglian Fault, and the Heihe Fault, potential candidates for the next strong earthquakes in this region.
Soft soil is widely distributed and has complex origins. Shield tunnels are inevitably constructed within soft soil interlayers, and under seismic action, tunnels may be subject to severe damages. On the basis of actual engineering, this study utilized dynamic triaxial testing to investigate the dynamic properties of soft soil. Using the PIMY constitutive model, the seismic subsidence characteristics of the soft soil were characterized, and a refined finite element model was established to study the mutual influence mechanism between the soft soil layer and shield tunnels via the open-source software framework OpenSees. The results demonstrate that soil exhibits a softening effect under dynamic loading; soft soil with better structural integrity is less prone to seismic subsidence; and the greater the inertial force acting on the soft soil, the greater the likelihood of settlement. Under seismic action, the presence of the shield tunnel exacerbates the settlement of the soft soil, as the surrounding soil experiences significant inertial forces from the tunnel structure, hindering drainage and accelerating the accumulation of pore water pressure; The soft soil itself has large deformation and displacement under the action of earthquake, which leads to the great stress, deformation, and displacement of the structure. The arch foot position of the tunnel is identified as the most vulnerable to damage.
Identifying precursors of large earthquakes is critical for minimizing the losses of life and property. Recently, Bletery and Nocquet (2023) captured a similar to 2-h-long exponential acceleration of slip using the high-rate (5-min) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) time series from the 48 hr before the 2011 M-W 9.0 Tohoku-oki earthquake, which was obtained by simply concatenating daily kinematic results together. Here, we apply their method to sum the horizontal displacements of 24 high-rate GNSS stations in the direction predicted by fault slip at the hypocenter of the 2023 M-W 7.8 Kahramanmaras earthquake to characterize its precursory phase. Results demonstrate a several-hour accelerating exponential slip before the mainshock. However, considering that single-day processing would lead to discontinuities at the day boundary, we process the multi-day GNSS data in continuous mode, repeat the experiment, and find that the observed acceleration-like signals vanish. Our work shows that inadequate data processing may lead to the detection of false precursory signals, highlighting the need to develop robust processing techniques to identify reliable precursory signals before large earthquakes.
The Shantou region, one of the most seismically active zones of Guangdong Province (South China), has experienced multiple strong earthquakes, including two significant events with magnitudes greater than 7.0 that occurred in 1600 and 1918, respectively. To investigate the seismogenic structures responsible for these major earthquakes and their potential triggering mechanisms, we construct a high-resolution shear-wave velocity model from the surface to ∼15 km depth based on a dense nodal seismic array using ambient noise tomography. The model reveals a pronounced low-velocity zone (LVZ) at depths of 2–15 km, with a perturbation of −2 to −8%, coinciding with the northwestern extension of the Huanggangshui Fault previously identified in the offshore region. Integrating our results with previous field geological surveys and shallow reflection seismic exploration, we interpret the LVZ as a wide fault zone, potentially comprising multiple fault branches that possibly include two NW-trending faults (i.e., the Rongjiang Fault and the Hanjiang Fault). Notably, the interaction between the Huanggangshui Fault and NE-trending Littoral Fault is suggested to have triggered the 1918 M7.3 Nan'ao earthquake. Additionally, the 1895 M 6.2 earthquake seems to have occurred at the edge of the LVZ near the Rongjiang Fault, a possible branch of the Huanggangshui Fault, further supporting the association between this structure and seismic activity. These findings imply that the LVZ may represent a region of concentrated tectonic stress, making it a potential site for future strong earthquakes. Consequently, this area should be prioritized in seismic hazard assessments. This study provides valuable insights into the seismogenic characteristics of the Shantou region and contributes to improving seismic hazard evaluations in South China.
The northern section of the Xiaojiang fault is the most active section in the Xiaojiang Fault Zone, and a detailed interpretation of this fault is highly important. In this work, KeyHole-4B images and Landsat 8 images of the northern section of the Xiaojiang fault were collected, and remote sensing interpretation and tectonic geomorphological analysis of the northern section of the Xiaojiang fault were carried out to obtain a more detailed fault distribution. The results reveal that the northern section of the Xiaojiang fault is a group of faults that are subparallel to each other with a space of 2–4 km. The fault is located along the Jinshajiang Valley and the Xiaojiang Valley. At the same time, we counted the large-scale left-lateral dislocations of the gullies and ridges. Combined with the results of previous studies, the long-term average slip rate of the northern section of the Xiaojiang fault is 6.2 ± 1.1 mm/a since the late Middle Pleistocene, 11.4 ± 2.8 mm/a since the middle of the late Pleistocene, and 8.0 ± 2.0 mm/a since the middle and late Pleistocene. The high slip rate in the northern section of the Xiaojiang fault represents the response of the local strain of the central Yunnan subblock, which rotates clockwise along the boundary fault. This finding is consistent with the pattern of northwards and north-east wards thrusting of the Indian plate, leading to eastwards extrusion and the escape of material from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.
To address the insufficient understanding of the dynamic coupling between surface subsidence and multi-depth rock mass deformation induced by underground mining, this study focuses on the 520109 working face of the Shagoucha Coal Mine in Shaanxi Province. Most existing subsidence prediction models rely heavily on surface deformation data and often overlook the temporal evolution of deep rock mass responses, limiting their predictive accuracy under complex geological conditions. In this context, we implement a fully integrated GNSS-borehole monitoring system to obtain high-frequency continuous GNSS observations and internal deformation time series at three key depths (14 m, 92 m, and 132 m). To reveal the dynamic correlation between strata deformations and surface subsidence across multiple time scales, cross-wavelet transform (XWT) analysis is applied to quantify both amplitude and phase relationships in the time-frequency domain. The results demonstrate that surface subsidence consistently lags behind deep rock mass deformation, with the deepest monitored stratum (132 m) showing the earliest and largest deformation. The 92 m layer (primary subsidence deformation zone) also displays a leading response, particularly in high-frequency bands, indicating its role in stress redistribution and transmission. In contrast, the shallow 14 m loess layer exhibits a lagging and hydrologically sensitive behavior, responding passively to overlying subsidence. These results highlight the stratified and frequency-dependent nature of deformation evolution, emphasizing the significance of deep rock mass signals as early indicators of subsidence progression. By integrating multi-depth deformation monitoring with time-frequency correlation analysis, this study provides novel insights into the temporal hierarchy of mining-induced subsidence. It provides theoretical support for refining subsidence prediction models and early warning systems. Compared with previous studies that focus primarily on surface or single-depth data, our approach provides a more comprehensive framework for interpreting the spatiotemporal dynamics of stratified deformation processes in mining areas.
We conducted a rapid seismic intensity assessment of a M 6.8 earthquake in Dingri, Xizang, using a ground motion parameter attenuation model based on the shortest fault distance combined with either an empirical equation for the surface rupture length or data on the aftershocks that occurred within 1.5 hr after the earthquake. The assessment showed that the empirical equation for the relationship between the surface rupture length and magnitude established by Wells et al. yielded a surface rupture length that was closer to the actual value, while the seismic intensity determined using a combination of the ground motion parameter attenuation model and the empirical equation for the surface rupture length was relatively in line with the intensity from the actual investigation. This study also demonstrated that manual intervention and screening are needed for aftershocks within 1.5 hr after the earthquake if this information is to be employed in the intensity assessment. In addition, if the death assessment model does not consider the seismic vulnerability of local buildings, significant errors can occur in practice. Nevertheless, the disaster assessment results were obtained within 5 min after the earthquake, thus providing important data support for the government emergency command and decision-making associated with the emergency rescue response.
A devastating Mw 7.7 earthquake struck near Mandalay, Myanmar, on March 28, 2025, causing extensive damage and casualties across Myanmar and neighboring regions. The 2025 event occurred in a well-recognized seismic gap along the Sagaing Fault. Here we focus on the mainshock rupture properties based on back-projection of teleseismic P waves and early aftershock locations, analysis of near-field seismic recordings for the mainshock initiation, and remotely triggered seismicity following the Mw7.7 mainshock. We find that the ∼500 km mainshock rupture can be revealed by both rapid back-projection of teleseismic P waves from multiple broadband arrays and early aftershock locations within about 3 h from the Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) catalog. The rupture speed went supershear in the southward propagation after the initial bilateral subshear ruptures, as expected for large strike-slip earthquakes of such sizes. Clear fault zone head waves that are reflected along a bimaterial fault interface are observed at the only near-fault station GE.NPW on the slower side about 2.6 km away from the Sagaing fault, consistent with the preferred direction of a supershear rupture propagating to the south. In addition, aftershocks from the regional TMD catalog appear to be located mostly to the east of the mainshock rupture. While we cannot completely rule out mis-locations from the one-sided station distribution, these off-fault seismicity could also be explained by reactivations of subsidiary faults within the Shan Plateau, or an eastward dipping of the mainshock rupture plane. Although no immediate foreshocks were found from several nearby stations, we identify one sub-event with magnitude ∼6 at the beginning of the mainshock with a slightly different focal mechanism about 20–30 km south of the hypocenter determined by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The mainshock also occurred when the tidal stresses reached its maximum on the right-lateral strike-slip fault, likely indicating that the timing of the mainshock is modulated by the solid earth tides. We find a significant increase of seismic activity near the Thailand/Myanmar border, in multiple (geothermally active) regions of Yunnan province in Southwest China, as well as the Xingfengjian reservoir in the Guangdong province in South China. Because static stress changes from the mainshock are small but negative near the Thailand/Myanmar border, the occurrence of microseismicity in this and other regions can be mainly explained by remote triggering from dynamic stress changes of the mainshock rupture. Our analyses demonstrate the importance of rapid analysis on openly available seismic data and catalog to better understand the rupture properties and triggered seismicity following large earthquakes.
The travel-time corrections for the primary seismic phases of 72 stations in the Guangdong seismic network,relative to the 1D South China travel-time model,were determined using joint hypocentral determination(JHD)and statistical analysis methods.The travel-time corrections for the Pg phase of 72 stations range between-0.25 s and 0.14 s,while the corrections for the Sg phase range between 0.27 s and 0.35 s,and those for the Pn phase are between-0.86 s and 0.07 s.The spatial distribution of travel-time corrections for Pg,Sg,and Pn phases of 72 stations correlates well with the geological structure in this region.This indicates that the travel-time corrections for Pg and Sg phases are mainly caused by the discrepancy between the actual crustal velocity structure beneath the stations and the 1D South China travel-time model.These corrections empirically compensate for systematic travel-time errors arising from such discrepancies.The primary factor contributing to the travel-time corrections for the Pn phase is the Moho undulations or tilt.These corrections are intended to compensate for systematic errors in travel time caused by variations in the actual Moho.By integrating the obtained travel-time corrections into the HYPO-SAT location algorithm,test results showed an obvious improvement in location accuracy and origin time precision for explosion events.The variation of horizontal distance between repeating earthquake pairs has also improved,with 86％of the repeating earthquake pair spacing being more accurately estimated after correction.This suggests the crucial significance of travel-time correction in earthquake location,and the consideration of travel-time correction exerts a notable impact on enhancing earthquake location accuracy.
Rapidly obtaining spatial distribution maps of secondary disasters triggered by strong earthquakes is crucial for understanding the disaster-causing processes in the earthquake hazard chain and formulating effective emergency response measures and post-disaster reconstruction plans. On April 3, 2024, a MW 7.4 earthquake struck offshore east of Hualien, Taiwan, China, which triggered numerous coseismic landslides in bedrock mountain regions and severe soil liquefaction in coastal areas, resulting in significant economic losses. This study utilized post-earthquake emergency data from China's high-resolution optical satellite imagery and applied visual interpretation method to establish a partial database of secondary disasters triggered by the 2024 Hualien earthquake. A total of 5 348 coseismic landslides were identified, which were primarily distributed along the eastern slopes of the Central Mountain Range watersheds. In high mountain valleys, these landslides mainly manifest as localized bedrock collapses or slope debris flows, causing extensive damage to highways and tourism facilities. Their distribution partially overlaps with the landslide concentration zones triggered by the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake. Additionally, 6 040 soil liquefaction events were interpreted, predominantly in the Hualien Port area and the lowland valleys of the Hualien River and concentrated within the IX-intensity zone. Widespread surface subsidence and sand ejections characterized soil liquefaction. Verified against local field investigation data in Taiwan, rapid imaging through post-earthquake remote sensing data can effectively assess the distribution of coseismic landslides and soil liquefaction within high-intensity zones. This study provides efficient and reliable data for earthquake disaster response. Moreover, the results are critical for seismic disaster mitigation in high mountain valleys and coastal lowlands.
As a primary slope stabilization technique, anchor support encompasses traditional engineering anchors, green anchors, and ecological restoration methods. This review synthesizes two decades of literature to evaluate these approaches. Current research disproportionately focuses on engineering anchors, while green anchor systems remain less studied despite their dual advantages: reduced labor/economic costs and environmental benefits. Notably, most green anchor studies originate from low-altitude plains, with minimal attention to high-altitude cold-arid regions such as plateaus. We therefore identify slope reinforcement using green anchors in plateau environments as a critical emerging research frontier.
On January 7, 2025, a M 6.8 earthquake occurred at Dingri County, Shigatse City, Xizang Autonomous Region, which is the most largest earthquake in this region in the most recent five years. The maximum recorded peak ground acceleration in this earthquake is 0.43 g, which is significantly higher than the local design basis earthquake intensity level. This report focuses on the post-earthquake seismic damage investigation of rural selfbuilt houses and local public buildings, which shows quite different seismic performance. Collapse and heavy damage of rural self-built houses without seismic resistant measures were observed, while the masonry houses with seismic resistant measures show good seismic performance against collapse. The structural systems of public buildings with proper seismic design suffered slight seismic damage. Different form slight structural damage, the seismic damages of non-structural components, which resulted in the interruption of public building functionality were highlighted in this report. With the investigation results of seismic damage suffered by local houses and buildings, the casualty distribution and causes were analyzed in detail.
This paper reports the recorded structural responses of four 170 m-320 m tall buildings in China to the mainshock of the M 7.9 Myanmar earthquake on March 28, 2025. The buildings are located approximately 1 200 km-2 000 km away from the epicenter. The following observations are made by preliminary analysis of the data: (1) the base motion of the buildings exhibited significant long-period components in the range of 2 s-10 s; (2) the identified fundamental periods were much larger than the empirical equations in the design codes, suggesting that the empirical equations may be overly conservative; (3) the amplification of floor accelerations was much more significant than code provisions for determining the seismic demands on non-structural elements, possibly attributing to the overly high damping ratios assumed in the design codes; (4) the buildings exhibited large enough equivalent lateral stiffnesses to satisfy the drift limit under frequent earthquakes by the Chinese seismic provisions, and (5) the significant durations of the shaking of the upper floors of the buildings were comparable to those of the base motions.
The Bayan Har block, one of China's most seismically active regions, has experienced multiple major earthquakes (≥M 7.0) in recent years. It is a key area for investigating the interactions between the Qinghai-Xizang (Qingzang) Plateau and adjacent blocks, plateau uplift, and strong earthquake mechanisms. P-wave velocity and crustal composition provide key constraints on the properties of distinct tectonic units and their evolutionary modification processes. Based on the results of 8 Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profiles completed in the Bayan Har block and surrounding areas over the past 20 years, We constructed one-dimensional P-wave velocity models for the crust of Bayan Har block, Qilian fold belt, Qinling fold belt, Alxa block, Ordos block and Sichuan basin. Furthermore, crustal composition models for different tectonic units were established based on these results. The results reveal that the crustal thickness of the Bayan Har block gradually decreases towards the NNE, NE, and SE directions, while the average crustal velocity increases correspondingly. The felsic layer in the crust accounts for more than half of the total crustal thickness. The mafic content within the crust of different tectonic units exhibits notable variations, which may reflect that the Bayan Har block, Qilian fold belt, and Qinling fold belt have experienced more intensive lithospheric evolution processes compared to Ordos basin and Sichuan basin. The seismicity distribution in this region is significantly controlled by crustal velocity and composition heterogeneity across the Bayan Har block and adjacent areas, which demonstrates that earthquakes within and around the Bayan Har block exhibit both high frequency and larger magnitudes. These seismic characteristics primarily result from intense crustal stress accumulation and release during the outward expansion of the Qingzang Plateau.
We proposes an AI-assisted framework for integrated natural disaster prevention and emergency response, leveraging the DeepSeek large language model (LLM) to advance intelligent decision-making in geohazard management. We systematically analyze the technical pathways for deploying LLMs in disaster scenarios, emphasizing three breakthrough directions: (1) knowledge graph-driven dynamic risk modeling, (2) reinforcement learning-optimized emergency decision systems, and (3) secure local deployment architectures. The DeepSeek model demonstrates unique advantages through its hybrid reasoning mechanism combining semantic analysis with geospatial pattern recognition, enabling cost-effective processing of multi-source data spanning historical disaster records, real-time IoT sensor feeds, and socio-environmental parameters. A modular system architecture is designed to achieve three critical objectives: (a) automated construction of domain-specific knowledge graphs through unsupervised learning of disaster physics relationships, (b) scenario-adaptive resource allocation using risk simulations, and (c) preserving emergency coordination via federated learning across distributed response nodes. The proposed local deployment paradigm addresses critical data security concerns in cross-border disaster management while complying with the FAIR principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) for geoscientific data governance. This work establishes a methodological foundation for next-generation AI-earth science convergence in disaster mitigation.
This study investigates the seismogenic characteristics of the 2025 Dingri MS 6.8 earthquake through multi-parametric GNSS analyses of velocity field, strain rate evolution and displacement patterns across pre-seismic and co-seismic phases. Our findings demonstrate spatiotemporally heterogeneous crustal deformation exhibiting kinematic precursors correlating with subsequent rupture propagation. The epicentral region exhibited prolonged N-S compressional strain accumulation accompanied by accelerated E-W extensional deformation and progressive counterclockwise rotation of principal strain axes three years prior, indicating enhanced local normal fault activities. Co-seismic observations delineate significant displacement domains, with the XZSJ (∼95 mm) site documenting the largest northeastward motion, consistent with rupture propagation along secondary N-E trending structures. Co-seismic strain analysis identifies concentrated seismic moment release primarily west of the Xainza-Dinggye Fault and north of the Southern Qinghai-Xizang Detachment Fault system, displaying normal fault kinematics in agreement with the seismic source mechanism. The co-seismic strain partitioning pattern shows critical implications for regional N-S trending normal fault system, necessitating sustained geodetic monitoring to advance understanding of seismic cycle deformation in this area.
Researching and comprehending the characteristics of destructive seismic motions is essential for the seismic design of critical infrastructure. This study employs historical data from the M 7.5 earthquake that occurred in 1850 to simulate the impacts of a M 7.5 event on hydropower stations located in proximity to Xichang. Key factors taken into account in the simulation of seismic motion encompass uncertainties, mixed-source models, and the placement of asperities. Through these simulations, we acquired the peak ground acceleration (PGA), acceleration time histories, and acceleration response spectra for the hydropower facilities affected by the earthquake. To perform a comprehensive analysis, we utilized a multi-scenario stochastic finite fault simulation method to estimate parameters including the minimum, average, and maximum values of PGA and pseudo-spectral acceleration (PSA) response spectra. Additionally, we assessed the 50th, 84th, and 95th percentiles values of the peak ground acceleration and pseudo-spectral acceleration response spectra. The simulation results also include peak ground acceleration field maps and peak ground velocity (PGV) field maps and intensity distribution maps pertaining to the earthquake. The findings demonstrate that the intensity maps produced through the stochastic finite fault method closely correspond with the intensity contour maps published of historical seismic records. These findings offer significant insights for the seismic safety evaluation and design of the specified hydropower stations. Moreover, this multi-scenario methodology can be effectively utilized for other critical infrastructure projects to derive dependable seismic motion parameters.
