Abstract: Pilots, in both civil and military aviation, must possess a unique combination of cognitive and psychomotor skills to manage the complexities of flight. Moreover, they need to be able to perform these skills under high pressure when things go wrong, when fatigued, after long periods of low cognitive demand, and in collaboration with others. In this sense, there are parallels between the domain of aviation and sports. Professional athletes receive targeted training to instill self-regulatory techniques which ensure optimal performance under different stressors. Because of the parallels between the two domains, a review of the sports psychology literature was performed to identify evidence-based self-regulatory techniques, and training practices for development of these techniques, that could be relevant for pilots. Identified techniques were goal setting, visualization, self-talk, pre-performance rituals, and mindfulness-based techniques. More general performance-enhancing techniques were the development of a growth mindset and grit. Technologies to support the training and application of these techniques that were identified were the use of virtual reality (VR) and physiological monitoring. In conclusion, several self-regulation techniques used by professional athletes could enhance the performance of military and civil pilots. Factors such as integration into existing operational routines, organizational culture, and psychological safety must be carefully considered to ensure successful adaptation and implementation in the aviation context.
Abstract: This study aimed to identify the essential attributes for military student pilots (MSPs), examine how these have changed over the past decade, and explore whether these traits are innate or trainable. Nine focus groups were conducted with subject matter experts (SMEs) from the Royal Netherlands Air and Space Force (RNLASF), including experienced pilots, behavioral experts, and MSPs. Seven categories of attributes were identified: adaptiveness, cognition, cooperation, effort, forward leaning, mental toughness, and trainability. Among these, cognition, effort, and trainability were largely perceived as innate, while others – such as adaptiveness and cooperation – may be enhanced through training. These findings provide a foundation for updating pilot selection and training strategies in military aviation.
Abstract: Startle and surprise, often resulting from sudden and unexpected events, have been implicated in numerous aviation accidents. To better understand this phenomenon, we investigated potential markers characterizing the reaction and individual differences in susceptibility. In total, 17 airline pilots took part in a flight simulator experiment, during which startling stimuli were administered (a loud thunder noise with a lightning flash) while behavioral reactions, flight performance, and physiological activity were recorded. Results showed that 92.3% of pilots exhibited an observable startle and surprise response, with flight performance degradation varying according to response intensity. The startling stimuli induced a significant increase in pupil diameter, and the subsequent flight performance was modulated by individual levels of neuroticism, highlighting the importance of personality factors in responses to unexpected events.
Abstract: We examined whether people with a fear of flying might be more likely to develop a fear of riding in fully automated vehicles, given that passengers in both situations lack control. In a representative sample of adult Finns, 44.5% reported a fear of flying, whereas 88.2% feared riding in fully automated vehicles. The correlation between these fears was positive ( r = .246) and somewhat lower (partial r = .205) after controlling for a locus-of-control measure and the fear of losing control. Although it seems unlikely that a large proportion of people who might develop a fear of riding in automated cars would comprise those who are currently afraid of flying, many of those with the strongest fear of flying might indeed develop such a fear.
Abstract: Some air navigation service providers (ANSPs) set a maximum age for entry into the air traffic controller (ATCO) occupation. Are such rules justified by empirical evidence? A recent meta-analysis of four studies reported no relationship between age at entry and training outcomes. Drawing on a larger number of studies ( k = 8, N = 34,389) spanning 60 years, the age–training outcome relationship was investigated in a “bare bones” random-effect meta-analysis (without correction for artifacts or moderator analyses). The mean correlation was [Formula: see text] = −.15 ( SEρ = .04)[−.23, −.06] and was statistically different from 0 ( Z = −3.39, p < .001). Overall, a small but significant negative correlation between age at entry and ATCO training outcomes was found. Practical implications for ANSPs are illustrated through utility analysis.
Abstract: This study explores the multilevel influences associated with commercial pilots’ risk appraisal when deciding whether to continue a flight into deteriorating conditions, focusing on small airplane and helicopter commercial operations in Australia and New Zealand. Deductive content analysis of online survey responses identified congruences with the extant literature. Commercial/financial and customer pressures were discovered as major external influences. Notably, pilots’ prior experience of similar conditions emerged as an important personal motivator that potentially leads to risk normalization. The findings underscore the interplay between multilevel influences and extrinsic/intrinsic safety motivations affecting pilots’ risk appraisal. The outcomes offer insights into the motivational orientations behind risk-taking intentions, offering an additional perspective on this complex aviation issue and contributing to efforts to reduce weather-related accidents.
Abstract: Fatigue is a significant concern in aviation, impacting flight safety across all operational task and occupational fields. However, the concept of fatigue is not universally understood, and its effects differ between occupational fields in aviation. Contributing factors to fatigue (antecedents) are numerous and may differ by occupational group, with existing evidence varying significantly across groups. To address this, we analyzed each group separately to identify unique task characteristics and investigated the given findings on antecedents, systematically reporting and calculating effect sizes where available. This approach reveals that some occupational groups have been extensively researched while others have been largely neglected, and that most antecedents have been investigated using subjective methods, which may introduce measurement biases.
In this study we translated and adapted the Remotely Piloted Commercial Passenger Aircraft Attitude Scale (RPCPAAS) into Turkish, with the aim of investigating passengers’ attitudes toward different types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). A total of 938 participants responded to the RPCPAAS, The Technology Readiness Index, and additional questions. The Turkish adaptation of the RPCPAAS showed high internal consistency and similar factor structure to the original scale. Attitudes toward UAVs were found to be associated with UAV flight anxiety and technology readiness levels. Individuals held more favorable attitudes toward single-pilot operations compared to other types of UAVs. The reliability and validity of the Turkish form of the RPCPAAS were supported. The findings highlight the importance of psychological factors in the acceptance of UAVs by the public.
Abstract: The German Aerospace Center (DLR) provides a selection procedure to identify suitable applicants for ab initio air traffic controller (ATCO) training at DFS Deutsche Flugsicherung GmbH. The selection phases comprise cognitive and work sample tests, team exercises, and an interview with a final assessment by a selection board. DFS ATCO training consists of initial training (IT) and unit training (UT). For the first time, performance data from the UT were available. A validation sample of 603 ATCO trainees was used to analyze the selection and training data. Cognitive performance was predictive of IT criteria and work sample performance was predictive of both IT and UT criteria. Final selection board assessments showed predictive validity for training criteria. Overall, the validity of the DLR selection procedure was confirmed.
Abstract: Gaze behavior represents a vital predictor of flight performance in pilots operating an aircraft. However, its role in collaborative settings with a copilot has been largely disregarded. Our study addressed this gap by simulating a flight environment with role division into a pilot flying (PF) and pilot monitoring (PM). Analyses of linear mixed-effects models revealed that different eye-tracking metrics significantly differed between the PF and the PM. Additionally, classification analysis revealed that these eye-tracking metrices were suitable for discerning between PF and PM with high predictive accuracy (97%) and precision (97%). We discuss implications for a role-based user state diagnosis for adaptive assistance system design in the cockpit, thereby advancing aviation safety.
Abstract: This study explores the possibility of using anchoring biases to change the risk-taking behavior assessed by the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). The study involved 90 military aviators who participated in a United Nations-led peacekeeping mission. We used an experimental design in which participants performed BART tasks distributed differently in the experimental groups to change the risk-taking behavior. After three stages, our results showed that the values of the indicator measuring risk-taking behavior were reduced in the low-anchor experimental group when operating in conditions of uncertainty. This indicator is influenced, in risk conditions, by both motor impulsivity and anchoring bias. Impulsivity is moderately associated with risk-taking behavior. The results also show that Big Five personality factors are not significantly associated with risk-taking behavior. In conclusion, these results confirm the role of the anchoring mechanism in changing risk-taking behavior and verify the strong relationship between impulsivity and risk behavior when individuals act in risky conditions.
Abstract: This study explored how expertise affects visual scanning strategies and the precision of flight maneuvers in military aviation. A total of 38 French Air Force pilots of three different expertise levels performed horizontal and vertical maneuvers in a flight simulator. Flight performance analysis showed that novices had larger deviations in roll, heading, and speed compared to cadets and experts, underlining the role of expertise on the precision of flight maneuvers. Eye-tracking analysis revealed that expert pilots used more efficient gaze strategies, focusing on key parameters such as pitch. Our results suggest that eye-tracking could significantly enhance pilot training by providing insights into expertise-specific visual behaviors. Future work will explore the use of real-time eye-tracking data to deliver immediate feedback, guiding pilots’ visual focus during training.
Abstract: In aviation, cognitive incapacitation refers to a temporary reduction in a pilot’s cognitive performance, typically triggered by unexpected and stressful events. This situation can alter perception, reasoning, decision-making performance, and ultimately the ability to perform cockpit duties effectively. Cognitive incapacitation has been identified as an important factor in many aviation accidents and incidents. However, research is scarce, and varying terminology is used to describe the phenomenon. Additionally, the methods to effectively induce and measure cognitive incapacitation remain debated. We conducted a comprehensive scoping review to enhance our understanding of this phenomenon and gain clearer insights into the research protocols. This review may be applied for improving training and developing solutions to mitigate the effects of cognitive incapacitation.
Abstract: To find out whether it is possible to train pilots and controllers to adequately trust their partners, and thus modify their behavior and increase their performance, this study experimentally tested whether individuals’ disposition to trust is influenced by their social learning. Objective measurements related to the task to perform, collected over two successive phases, were used for two different groups of aviation staff. The results highlight a link between swift trust, supervision strategies, and time management and point to the social nature of the disposition to trust. This opens the way to a new experimental approach to the study of behaviors induced by interpersonal trust and to new pedagogical levers for optimizing the activity of ephemeral teams through training.
Abstract: Following the Colgan Air Flight 3407 crash, four Pilot Source Studies (PSSs) were conducted to explore the relationship between pilot backgrounds and flight performance in regional airlines. Despite consistent methodologies, inconsistent findings emerged, likely due to factors such as sample characteristics, variable categories, performance criteria, and operational contexts. To address these discrepancies, a meta-analysis of the PSSs was performed. After reviewing the studies, eight background variables and two performance variables met the inclusion criteria. The analysis revealed significant associations between background variables and pilot performance, with validity coefficients ranging from .04 to .10. The strongest predictors were total flight hours, AABI-accredited flight programs, and ATP certification, while former military status, flight instructor certification, and college degrees showed weaker but significant associations. These findings highlight the importance of background variables in flight performance and inform pilot recruitment and training.
Abstract: The growing popularity of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has led to increased conflict and collision potential between manned and unmanned aircraft. Beyond the visual line of sight, UAV missions require an airspace observer, who may fail to provide accurate traffic information. This work proposes a novel traffic display design that provides conflict and avoidance maneuver guidance in addition to information on surrounding traffic. In a human-in-the-loop experiment, UAV pilots’ perception of surrounding traffic using the novel display was evaluated against that of a “perfect” airspace observer (baseline condition). Results show that the novel traffic display offered more comprehensive traffic awareness at the perception level compared to the baseline condition. Positional quality did not differ notably, although accurate information was provided in the baseline condition.
